Baca PDF (OCR): Living conditions of plantation workers and peasants on Java in 1939-1940; final report. Translation by Robert Van Niel

©wrP 44 LIVING CONDITIONS OF PLANTATION WORKERS AND PEASANTS ON JAVA IN 1939-1940 Coolie Budget Commission (translation by Robert Van Niel) TRANSLATION SERIES MODERN INDONESIA PROJECT Southeast Asia Program Department of Far Eastern Studies Cornell University Ithaca, New York Price—$1.50 LEAP Publications file copy Do not remove from room 213 640

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LIVING CONDITIONS OF PLANTATION WORKERS AND PEASANTS ON JAVA IN 1939 - 1940 Final Report oi the Coolie Budget Commission instituted by decree of the Directors of Justice and Economic Affairs of December 23, 1938 No. E./82/20/1 December 30, 1941 (translation by Robert Van Niel) TRANSLATION SERIES Modern Indonesia Project Southeast Asia Program Department of Far Eastern Studies Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. 1956

PREFACE One of the most important socio-economic surveys undertaken by the Netherlands East Indies Government was the investigation carried out during 1939 and 1940 of living conditions among workers on Javanese plantations and some of the peasants domiciled nearby. The comprehensive report based on this investigation was not completed until December 8, 1941 —on the eve of the Japanese in- vasion. Neither the Netherlands or Netherlands Indies governments ever made the report public, the circulation of copies being re- stricted to certain government officials. While the significance of this study was pointed out more than three years ago by Professor W. F. Wertheim in his brief but useful summary in Pacific Affairs (June 1953, pp. 158-164), only a few copies re- mained^ and they were of course of value only to those with a knowledge of Dutch. In line with its policy of making important Indonesian and Dutch language materials concerning modern Indonesia more widely available, the Cornell Modern Indonesia Project is publishing this English translation of the principal volume of the report» (There are, in addition, two supplementary volumes of statistical tables; however, they are of considerably less utility, and the cost of publishing them would have been prohibi- tive „ ) The data contained in this report should be of value not only to those interested in rural social conditions at the close of Dutch colonial rule. They should also prove helpful to an appreciation of why Indonesian plahtation workers were so frequently inclined to give positiv e support to the leaders of the Indonesian revolution. In addition, they may prove useful to those interested in understanding why post-revolutionary labor organizations have been able to develop such strong support among plantation workers. This translation is the work of Professor Robert van Niel of the Department of History at Russell Sage College. The Cornell Modern Indonesia Project wishes to express its gratitude to him for undertaking it. George McT. Kahin, Director Cornell Modern Indonesia Project

GLOSSARY OF TERMS koelie ... laborer tani ... Indonesian peasant sawah ... wet rice fields (fields which are irrigated or inundated) tegalan ... dry crop fields mandur ... foreman, native labor supervisor gula pasar... .,.. market sugar (white cane)
gula djawa ....,... Javanese sugar (brown)
slametan. .. ceremonial feast Vorstenlanden... the principalities of Surakarta and Jogjakarta FI (florin) ... the same as guilder (100 cents) and worth about $.40 U.S. at the time of this survey (1939-1940)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I.INTRODUCTION
A.Reasons for the Coolie Budget Investigation
B.Installation of the Coolie Budget Commission
C.Activities of the Coolie Budget Commission II.PURPOSE, EXTENT, AND METHOD OF THE BUDGET INVESTIGATION
A.Purpose of the Budget Investigation
B.Extent and Method of the Budget Investigation
1.Number of Plantations Involved in the Budget Investigation
2.Number of Families Involved in the Budget Investigation
3.Duration and Time of the Budget Investigation
4.Method of Investigation
5.Collation of the Data III.THE FAMILIES: THEIR HOUSING AND LAND AND LIVESTOCK POSSESSIONS
A. The Families
1.Composition of the Families a„ Introduction
b.Composition of the Families
c.The Number of Wage Earners
d.Variation in the Size of Families
2.The Age of Families and Their Various Members
a.The Age of the Families
b.The Age of the Family Members
3.The Height and Weight of Family Members page 1 1 1 2 6 6 6 6 8 9 10 11 12 12 12 12 12 14 18 21 21 24 26

a.Height and weight at Different Ages
b.The Relationship between Height and Weight
c.Height and Weight of Men and Women from 26 through 45 Years
d.Height and Weight per Family Member
e.Height and Weight per Family Member in Families of Various Sizes
B.Housing and Social Arrangements
1.The Housing
a.The Manner of Housing
b.The Physical Structure of the Houses
2.The Social Arrangements
C.Possession of Land and Livestock
1.Possession of Land
a.The Number of Land Owners and the Type of Land of the Families Living off the Plantation
b.The Size and Tax Rates of the Lands
c.Utilization of the Land
d.Utilization of the Garden-plots
2.Possession of Livestock IV. INCOME AND EXPENDITURES
A. Income and Consumption Expenditures
1.Variability of Income
a.Income from Work for the Plantation
b.Other Sources of Income
2.Difficulties in Determining the Size of the Income
a.Income from Work for the Plantation
b.Other Sources of Income page 26 28 29 31 32 34 34 34 35 37 38 38 38 40 41 42 43 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 46

Ill page

3.The Size of the Income46
4.The Composition of the Income47
5.The Size and Distribution of the Income and Consumption Expenditure51
B. The Cash Situation52
1.The Significance of the Cash Situation52
2.The Monetary Receipts54
3.The Monetary Expenditures56
4.The Size of the Monetary Variance58
5.The Changes in the Financial Position59
V.WORK AND WAGES61
A.The Work on the Plantation61
1.The Importance of the Number of Work Days and Work Hoursθχ
2.The Size of the Number of Work Days and Work Hours61
a.Work within the Family61
b.The Work of the Men and Women within the LaboringAge63
c.The WorkInvolved in Some of the Leading Tasks65
B.The Wages fromthe Plantation67
1.The Importance of the Daily and Hourly Earnings67
2.The Size of the Daily and Hourly Earnings68
a.The Daily and Hourly Earnings of the Men and Womenwithin theLaboring Age63
b.The Daily and Hourly Earnings for Some of the Leading Tasks70 VI.CONSUMPTION73
A.ConsumptionExpenditures73
1. The Meaning of Consumption Expenditures 73

2.The Grouping of Consumption Expenditures
3.Comparison of Consumption Expenditures
4.Consumption Expenditures Subdivided According to Manner in Which the Consumption Articles Were Acquired
5.Consumption Expenditures Divided into 6 Groups
6.TheExpendituresforFood
7.The Expenditures WaterforFire, Illumination and
8.TheExpendituresforClothing
9.TheExpendituresforHousing
10...TheExpendituresforLuxury Items
11. Miscellaneous Expenditures
B. The Amounts of Consumption Articles Consumed
1.The Trustworthiness of the Acquired Data
2.The Amounts of the Specified Food Articles Consumed
3.The Price of the Specified Food Articles C The Nutritive Value of the Menu
1.Figuring the Nutritive Value
2.The Amount of Food Consumed
3.The Caloric Value of the Food
4.The Albumin Consumption
5.Fat Consumption
6.Carbohydrate Consumption
7.Vitamin A Consumption
3. Vitamin Bj Consumption
9. The Importance of Albumins, Fats and Carbohydrates in the Calory Provision 73 73 75 76 78 86
8.8 90 92 93 97 97 99 101 103 103 104 108 110 112 114 116 117 119

V page 10„ The Expensiveness ofthe Food119 SUMMARY122 1„ Introduction122

2.Purpose, Extent and Method of the Budget Investigation123
3.The Families: Their Housing and Land and Livestock Possessions123
4.Income and Expenditures125 5Work and Wages125 6,Consumption127

I. INTRODUCTION
A. Reasons for the Coolie Budget Investigation Due to the drop in prices of our export products on the world market in the years 1929-1936 the entrepreneurs were forced to lower their costs of production. The wages of the native workers suffered so much from this readjustment that the government, fearing that the wages would fall below the subsistence level, felt obliged to draw the attention of the entrepreneurs to this factor and to call upon their cooperation in guarding the wage level. In the same month that the Netherlands left the gold standard, September 1936, the Central Statistical Office began the systematic collection and collation of wage statistics for the Labor Office. The marked rise in prices of products at that time, due in part to the devaluation, appeared, after almost a year, to have had but little effect upon the wage level. Therefore in a circular on September 7, 1937, the government urged the entrepreneurs to make a thorough reassessment of workers’ wages. In order to set a standard, there would have to be an increase in the 1936 wages concordant with the increased cost of living since devaluation, that is to say, about 20%. Although most of the entrepreneurs heeded the desire of the government to effect wage increases, there was within the next year no general trend toward making the ’•'^ges 20% higher than in 1936. The results of the wage statistics, furthermore, permit only conclusions about the relative development of the wages. The statistics give no indication if the wages can be regarded as "reasonable" in an absolute sense. Since there are local variations in methods of living on Java and consequently in cost of living, it was deemed desirable to institute an investigation into these variations. With the aid of the statistics thus obtained the rise in wages could better be determined, and a better insight into the real value of the wage could be obtained.
B. Installation of the Coolie Budget Commission The above mentioned consideration led, after lengthy consultation with the entrepreneurs, to the establishment of a commission whose mission was "the formulation of the bases for the standard budgets of Javanese plantation workers in the various plantation districts of Java," because "it is necessary for the government, in exerting control over the reasonable adjustment of the wage of plantation workers oil Java to the costs of living, to have more statistics and to obtain a better view of the local level of these costs." This Commission, generally called the Coolie Budget Commission, instituted by decree of the Directors of Justice and Economic Affairs of December 23, 1938 No. E/82/20/1, consisted of the following appointees:
a. member and chairman: J. J. Ochse, First class civil servant for General Economic Affairs at the Department of Economic Affairs;

b. members:
1.H. J. Top, Chief of the Labor Inspection and/or a labor inspector to be appointed by him;
2.Dr. Η. M. J. Hart, First class civil servant assigned to the Head of the Central Statistical Office;
3.Drs. (1) H. C. M.. van Kessel, Second Secretary of the General Agricultural Syndicate;
4.M. G. Mout, Administrator of the sugar factory Watoetoelis. As the appointed labor inspector, Mr. Top appointed Mr. W. A. Gravelaar who, because of his departure for Medan after the first meeting, was replaced by Mr. H. W. A. A. Martens, Head of Labor Inspection on Java. The Commission met six times. These meetings were on March 7, May 26, and August 29, 1939; April 3 and August 14, 1940; and April 2, 1941. The final meeting which was to be held on December 18, 1941, could not be held because of the war. A provisional report was submitted to the Directors of Justice and Economic Affairs on April 5, 1941. The final report was completed on December 30, 1941 after each of the members had had the opportunity to make his comments on it. Any eventual processing of the data was delegated to the Central Statistical Office.
C. Activities of the Coolie Budget Commission In the interest of the work of the Coolie Budget Commission, the Central Statistical Office compiled a memorandum for the first meeting of the Commission which gave a summary of the available material on Wage-, Dietary-, Budget- and other investigations which might possibly be of interest to the Coolie Budget Commission. This memorandum drew attention to the incompleteness of earlier investigations and to the difficulties which might be expected in the proposed investigations. A draft agenda was appended to this memorandum and was discussed at the first meeting of the Coolie Budget Commission on March 7, 1939. This draft agenda suggested only a detailing and completing of previous investigations as well as a few ’’fill in" investigations on certain points such as: Transl. ftnt.:
(L)Drs. (doctorandus) is the title given to persons who have completed all work for the doctor’s degree with the exception of the dissertation.

1„ wage analysis in order to determine the size of incomes from plantations;

2.work analysis to enable piece work to be figured on a time basis;
3.complete income analysis, that is to say, investigations to determine the total income of workers’ families in order to discover the degree of dependence of the worker’s family upon the plantation;
4.supplementary investigations into the size of families and the number of breadwinners in the workers’ families. In consultation with the administrators, forms were drawn up for these investigations. It was also decided that if possible, additional budget investigations would be made, for it was feared that the results of the earlier—probably somewhat outdated—investigations would not be entirely usable for the Commission’s purposes Most of the second meeting of the Coolie Budget Commission (May 26, 1939) was devoted to the consideration of two memoranda. The first: "The influence of the social welfare and the size of the family on food consumption" written by Dr. A. Μ. P. A. Scheltema, was a rewriting of the investigations held in 1921 in several districts of the former Residency of Pasoeroean. This memorandum might be regarded as a supplementation and detailing of Dr. Η. M. J. Hart’s memorandum which was discussed at the first meeting. As a consequence of this memorandum the need for more, preferably detailed, budget investigations was stressed. The second memorandum; "Partial wage-analysis of 100 tappers’ families employed by the rubber plantations of West Java” was meant to serve as groundwork for possible future budget investigations. Although the need for limiting the wage-condition-analysis to simple affairs in order to speed the work of investigation was emphasized at this meeting, various difficulties were pointed out which hindered a rapid solution of the problem. Noted here are the following questions: What is the difference between a family and a household? What is the influence of crop failure on the composition of the menu? To what extent must workers be dependent upon the plantation for their income before they are counted as plantation workers? Will investigation in three or four places be adequate for application in some 70 odd areas? Will not the great variability in method of work and manner of payment compli- cate the reevaluation of piece work into work on a time basis? Even though it would mean a significant widening of the area of work for the Commission, it was decided, as a result of the discussions at this meeting, to conduct a number of budget investigations, for it was felt that otherwise many questions and difficulties could not be solved with any degree of certainty. It was decided first to try to obtain wage-analyses on 22 plantations. A desire to save time and work lay behind this deci- sion. With the aid of these wage analyses the most representative plantations and most representative families could rapidly be

selected. This would avoid starting budget investigations on plantations which might later appear to be unsuitable. These wage-analyses asked: composition of the family, number of wage earners, number of work days, income from wages, other possible sources of income, daily wage and job wage, and the type of housing. Immediately after this meeting the (questionnaire) forms were agreed upon and discussed with the administrators of the 22 selected plantations. Simultaneously an orienting budget investigation was started on a rubber plantation in West Java. A draft summary of the results of the family-analyses (see

table 1(^ could be discussed at the third meeting on August 29,1939.

As a result of this discussion eleven plantations were selected for conducting complete budget investigations. The account of the budget investigation held in West Java was not yet complete at that time. Nevertheless the Commission was notified that this method Of investigation was completely satisfactory for attaining the expected results and that therefore it would be advisable to continue in this manner. In the months of September and October eleven investigations were started and from December 1939 through February 1940 eight more. As part of these investigations a separate department, "Coolie Budget Investigation," was established in the Central Statistical Office. This department served as a secretariat for the Coolie Budget Commission and, under the direction of Mr. Huizenga, carried out the budget investigations and the numerous calculations associated therewith. In February 1940 the first complete report appeared. It was about a rubber plantation in West Java. This was followed shortly by the reports on two coffee plantations in East Java. At the fourth meeting on April 3, 1940 these reports were discussed. It was decided to continue in the same manner and since none of the sugar plantations had been investigated during the harvesting and processing season,, it was decided to repeat the investigations on three sugar plantations in May and June. Also two forestry reserves would now be drawn into the investigation. These five investigations were conducted in the months of April through June 1940. The reports of the various plantations appeared rather regularly thereafter. 4?) Occasionally special investigations were started. After ten reports had appeared the Directors of Justice and Economic Affairs requested an interim-recommendation. This was compiled and discussed at the fifth meeting on August 14, 1940.

(1) The tables referred to here and throughout the report are contained in Vols. II and III of the Final Report of the Coolie Budget Commission, which are as yet; unpublished. f
(2) For the dates of appearance see Appendix 1.

Since the content and conclusions of this recommendation were felt by some members of the Coolie Budget Commission to exceed the original mandate of the Commission, it was decided to ask the opinion of the Directors of Justice and Economic Affairs, Thereafter the supplemented and wherever necessary revised recommendation, after being Approved at the sixth meeting of the Commission, was presented to the above mentioned department heads on April 2, 1941, At this meeting it was also decided to go no further with the work of the Coolie Budget Commission than "the formulation of the bases for the standard budgets." In the reports of the separate plantations the facts are given in worker groups and in income classes within these worker groups just as they have been recorded. All members of the Coolie Budget Commission agreed with the assembled facts, and with the manner in which the basic materials for the formulation of the bases for the standard budgets for the plantation workers in Java was assembled. They also concurred with the manner in which this basic material had been incorporated into the reports and in the draft-recommendation. This recommendation had little influence upon the work of the Commission so that finally on December 8, 1941 the first part of the final report which follows hereupon was presented to the members of the Coolie Budget Commission in draft form. The report was to be discussed in a meeting which was set for December 18,

1941. Due to the declaration of war against Japan on December 8, 1941 this meeting could not be held. Mr. Hart, at the request of the chairman, discussed the comments of Mr. Mout in Soerabaya on December 22, those of Messrs. Top and Martens in Batavia on December 24, and those of Mr. van Kessel on December 30 also in Batavia. Thereafter the report could be drawn up. Gratitude may be expressed at this time to the plantation organizations and the directorates and administrators of the separate plantations who either directly or indirectly have assisted in the collection of the necessary data. The Labor Office, which placed many of its employees at the disposal of the Coolie Budget Commission, the Division of Agriculture and Industry, which also loaned personnel, and the civil servants of the Department of Internal Administration, who were always most cooperative, have all had a share in producing the final result. Further, the invaluable work of Dr. S. Postmus, Head of the Peoples’ Nutritional Institute, who conducted investigations on health and nutritional conditions of workers* families on seven plantations, and of Dr. A. Siegenbeek van Heukelom, who compiled a general medical summary from the data contained in the reports of the Coolie Budget Commission and in the reports of Dr. Postmus, must be mentioned. Finally, a special word of thanks to Mr. L. H. Huizenga, head of the "Coolie Budget Investigation" department, who, with the

personnel at his disposal, directed his tireless energy and attention to the work both in and outside his office and brought it all to successful completion. 11· purpose, EXTENT, AND METHOD OF THE BUDGET INVESTIGATION

A. Purpose of the Budget Investigation The purpose of the budget investigation was to obtain an insight into the living conditions of workers' families on Javanese plantations. Naturally it was impossible for the Commission to conduct budget investigations on a large number of plantation enterprises on Java (at the end of 1939 there were 1182 plantation enterprises on Java; this counts plantations with two or more crops as one). However, in order to get as accurate as possible a picture, certain plantations were selected for the budget investigation which, in consultation with the plantation organizations, were regarded as representative of the leading plantation centers of Java.
B. Extent and Method of the Budget Investigation
1. Number of Plantations Involved in the Budget Investigation The number of plantations involved in the budget investigation is given in the table below. NUMBER OF PLANTATIONS INVOLVED IN THE BUDGET INVESTIGATION Numberof plantationsNumberofinvestigations Province:tcrtstttcrtstt eououioeouQuiQ afbbgmtafbbgmt fbaabafbaaba eecre1eecre1 ercrercr oo West Java3—1---43-2——5 Central Java*——312—6—314—8 East Java- '32122103223212 Java3362422033737225 The total budget investigation thus involved 18 plantation enterprises and two timber reserves of which 5 plantations (1 rubber plantation, 1 tobacco plantation, and 3 sugar plantations) were investigated twice. The above table shows that the number of plantations was largest in East Java and smallest in West Java. Also only two types (tea and rubber) were investigated in West Java and only three types in Central Java. The number of plantations investigated is smaller for West Java than for Central Java and much

smaller than for East Java where four types (coffee, rubber, tobacco, and sugar) of plantations were investigated. In view of the fact that rubber plantations are more evenly distributed over all of Java than the othfer plantations, the number of investigations of rubber plantations is greater than for other types. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FIVE LEADING TYPES OF PLANTATIONS AND TIMBER RESERVES Province:Number of plantations at the end of 1939(1) teacoffeerubbertobaccosugartotaltimber (2) West Java26135366-867010 Central Java187073273822617 East Java20189172145645120 JAVA29929461141 -102134747 Area (in hectares) under cultivation at the end of 1939 Province:teacoffeerubbertobaccosugartotaltimber (3) West Java932131004130334-788023243188930 Central Java 6309126292807882553542790698313222 East Java564071917769481612151640222266411373 JAVA105162855502353602437694947545395813525

(1)Plantations with two or more crops are counted under each crop.
(2)Number of teak wood enterprises.
(3)Extent of the teak wood area of which 757682 hectares was in operation at the end of 1939. The cultivated area of the investigated plantations is, with the exception of the sugar plantations, larger than the general Javanese average for each type of plantation. From Table 2 it can be noted that the tea and coffee plantations which were investigated lay at a much higher elevation (400-1700 m) than the other investigated plantations of which the sugar plantations were situated at the lowest elevation (0-150 m) and the rubber plantations the highest (50-700 m).

THE SIZE OF THE PLANTATIONS Average cultivated area of each Type of Plantation:plantation in hectares. Budget InvestigationJava tea691352 coffee1031291 rubber1343385 tobacco1197595 sugar 912931 timber3660717309 This table also shows that the three sugar plantations with the lowest elevation which were investigated lay in the most densely populated districts. It must also be mentioned that in the district of Padangan in the residency of Bodjonegoro an investigation was instituted among five categories of village inhabitants /owners of wet rice lands (sawahs), owners of dry rice lands (tegalan),_ owners of garden-ploTs (erven), owners of homes, and non-owners/, but the data from this investigation has not been incorporated-in this report.

2. Number of Families Involved in the Budget Investigation A general picture of the number of families involved in the budget investigation is given in the table below. A total of 89 families (Table 3) was not incorporated in the final analysis because of incompleteness of data (departure or breakup of family during investigation, insufficient distinction between expenditures for consumption and business expenses, or complication of family income and expenses through the presence of boarders, etc.) or for other reasons (untrustworthiness, abnormal expenses for the cele- bration of certain festivities, etc.). THE NUMBER OF FAMILIES INVOLVED IN THE BUDGET INVESTIGATION Number of families (1) by type of plantation Province:teacoffeerubbertobaccosugartimbertotal West Java182133_315 Central Java——19774278—549 East Java-1532331322623011081 JAVA1821535632065403011945
   (1) Includes tani families (Transl. ftnt: Tani is an Indonesian agriculturalist. Rather than translate this term as either peasant or farmer it was thought best to retain the term ’tani' throughout?)

In Table 3 these families are further broken down according to occupation into: (1) field laborers, (2) factory laborers,

(3) supervisors and skilled laborers and (4) tanis; and according to domicile into: (1) families living on the plantation and
(2) families living off the plantation. Since there were 25 inves tigations, the average number of families per investigation is 80. From the breakdown of wage-earner families living on or off the plantation in Table 3, it appears that, with exception of a rubber plantation located on the boundary between West and Central Java, the families which were investigated in Central Java did not live in plantation houses, while those in West and East Java, with the exception of those on two sugar plantations and a timber reserve, were living in plantation housing areas. There was a total of 568 families living in plantation housing out of a total of 1555 wage earner families which were investigated. Table 3 also shows that the group of field laborers, which forms the most important group of workers, has been selected more often for investigation than the other groups of factory laborers, or supervisors and skilled laborers:in fact the relative number is respectively, 1015, 253 and 287 families. In order to compare local living conditions there were a total of 390 tani families incorporated in 22 of the 25 investigations.
3. Duration and Time of the Budget Investigation All data incorporated in the report refers to a budget investigation that was conducted for 30 consecutive days. The duration as well as the scope of the investigation was kept within certain limits. A summary of the time at which various of the investigations occurred is given in the table below (see also Table 2): THE TIME OF INVESTIGATION Number of investigationsDate of investigation monthyear 1June/July1939 11September/October1939 7December/January1939/1940 1January/February1940 2April/May1940 3May/June1940 From this it can be seen that the investigations occurred during three periods, namely in the months September/October 1939, December 1939/January 1940, and April/June 1940. The time at

which the investigation is held can greatly influence the result. This is especially true in regard to the two following points:

1.the general food situation (harvest time or "meager” time),
2.the opportunity for work on the plantation. In Java the main harvest of the chief crop, rice, occurs in the months from April to June, while the meager time is from December to February. During and immediately after the harvest the population in general has a sizeable rice surplus (from their own harvest, from share cropping, from wages paid in kind, etc.). In this period rice is cheapest. This also benefits those persons who have to buy their rice. For this reason the investigation of* the West Java rubber plantations which had been conducted in first instance in the period shortly after the harvest in the months of June and July 1939, was repeated again in December 1939 and January
1940. The work opportunities on coffee, tobacco and sugar plantations varies greatly in the course of a year, for harvesting is conducted only a few months of the year. During these months in which the crop is not only harvested but must also be processed, there is a much greater demand for labor than in the other months of the year. This causes a sharp rise in the total wage receipts from these plantations in these periods while in many cases there is also an increase of individual wages. Consequently the time of investigation is of great importance for plantations of this type. Therefore the investigation was conducted twice on three of the four sugar plantations, the first time shortly after the harvesting and processing period when there was little demand for labor, and the second time at the beginning of the harvesting and processing period during the time that one of the most important operations in the preparation of the new crop was also still in process. For similar reasons two investigations were held on one of the two tobacco plantations. The coffee plantations were investigated only at the time following the picking. The time of investigation is of less relevance for the tea, rubber, and timber plantations, for here the work goes on fairly regularly throughout the year. In view of the above, the results obtained on the various plantations must be accepted with the necessary reservations. Naturally the Commission did not have the liberty to stretch the duration and scope of investigations,
4. Method of Investigation All local investigations were supervised by the Coolie Budget Commission and were conducted by civil servants (i.e., agricultural consultants, labor inspectors, etc.) placed temporarily at the. disposal of the Commission. The necessary office and clerical personnel were hired locally. Based upon the results of the pre-investigation and after local orientation, those families who by composition and by size

and nature of income were deemed to be most representative of the various employment categories, were, after consultation with the local plantation and administrative personnel, chosen for the budget investigation. After these families had been informed of and reassured about the impending investigation, and the clerical personnel had been instructed about their job, the actual budget investigation could commence. For 30 consecutive days the data concerning consumption, expenditures, income, and any other relevant information of the previous day were gathered family by family. The data were assembled in household books (each family was kept in a separate book), in which a daily record could be kept of:

1.the quantity, value and source of newly acquired and used articles and whether they were bought on credit, or for cash, or in barter;
2.monetary expenditures, not only for newly acquired articles paid for in cash, but also for business, amortization of debt, wages, etc.;
3.income, wages, as well as other forms of income;
4.the number of hours worked on and off the plantation by the various members of the family, and the nature of the various types of work;
5.the number and type of persons sharing in the consumption. In addition data were assembled on:
a.the composition of the family which included the familial relationship of each person, sex, age, height, weight, place of birth and other statistics (general body build, reasons for not working, etc.);
b.the housing which included whether it was a plantation house, own house, or another person’s house, measurements, and other features;
c.land ownership (wet land, dry lands and/or fish ponds) for which the area, type, and back taxes were noted from the village registers—letter C—and which also gave the ownership rights, the method of control, the nature of the crop and the yield;
d.livestock ownership which included the number and type of animals and whether they were or were not full grown;
e.social and other provisions.
5. Collation of the Data The results from each plantation were compiled in a report which listed in consecutive order the composition, housing, land and livestock possessions, income, expenditures, and the quantity and quality of the menu for the families which had been investigated. In addition a tentative summary was made for the first 10 plantations investigated^ later this was done for all 25 investigations. These separate reports and tentative summaries have not been published.

The chapters of the first volume of this final report deal consecu- tively with:

1.Introduction;
2.Purpose, extent, and method of the budget investigation;
3.The families; their housing and land and livestock possessions;
4.Income and expenditures;
5.Work and wages;
6.Consumption. The last four chapters are repeated in the second volume in which the families are broken down into economic categories. This volume also discusses the effect of the composition of the family on consumption and the composition of the standard budgets. HI. THE FAMILIES: THEIR HOUSING AND LAND AND LIVESTOCK POSSESSIONS
A. The Families
1.Composition of the Families
a.Introduction All persons completely incorporated in the household, whether blood members of the family or not, were regarded as members of the family; this excepted boarders. Members of the family who were not present during the period of the investigation were not counted in the family. In the Tables from 4 through 17 a survey of the families which were investigated on each plantation is giv^n. These tables distinguish between families living on and those living off the plantation. The family members were further grouped according to sex (male-female), according to familial relationship //I) head of family and wife of head of family, (2) children of heacT of family and/or his wife, and (3) other members of the family/, and according to age (0-12, 12-16, 16-61, and over 60 years). The age division is based upon the following four work criteria:
1.0-12 years—child labor /according to the Staatsblad van Nederlandsch-Indie (Official Gazette) of 1925 no. 647, all work of children below 12 years old is regarded as child labor/;
2.12-Γ6 years—labor of adolescents (there is a general rule in the Labor Office that regards all heavy physical labor and all labor longer than eight hours per day as undesirable for this group);
3.16-61 years—normal laboring age (and regarded as such by the Coolie Budget Commission);
4.over 60 years—aged (and regarded as such by the Coolie Budget Commission).
b.Composition of the Families The table below gives a summary of the average number of family members per family among various types of workers.

THE SIZE OF THE FAMILY Average number of members per family Province:Type of plantation Living on the plantation Living off the plantation field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv.& fieldfactory laborerssuperv.& skilled labor- erstanis skilled labor-erslabor- ers West Javatea3.93.94.43.94.9 rubber3.6——4.0—5.8 Central Java rubber3.33.94.04.75.04.84.5 tobacco———5.04.85.55.1 sugar---5.04.55.64.4 East Java coffee3.43.83.7———6.8 rubber3.84.84.35.7——5.8 tobacco4.4—5.34.4——5.4 sugar--—4.65.45.95.5 timber3.7-5.75.65.75.15.6 From this table it appears that the size of the families both on and off the plantations shows a general increase from field laborer to supervisor and skilled laborer, and that the size of the tani families can be reckoned among the largest. Further it appears that the field laborer families who live on the plantations are somewhat smaller in size than those of the factory laborers and supervisors and skilled laborers. Also the relatively smaller size of the field laborer families living off the tea and rubber plantations in West Java and off the tobacco and sugar plantations in East Java as compared to the size of the tani families is striking. From the table below it appears that the average size of families living on the plantation; is smaller than those families living off the plantation and tani families.

COMPOSITION OF FAMILIES LIVING ON AND OFF THE PLANTATION Type of familyAverage number of members per family heads of family and their wiveschiI dr en (inc1. step children) of the family headother members of the familytotal
Wage earner families living on the plantation. .....2.01.60.44.0
Wage earner families living off the plantation. .....1.92.40.75.0
Tani families...1.92.50.95.3 This is largely due to the fact that the number of children is less, and to a lesser degree that there are fewer family and non-family members living with families who live on a plantation than with those living off the plantation. As a point of interest it can be pointed out that the number of blood relations living in with the wage earner families was 92% of the rubric ’Other members of the family” for those living on the plantation, 89% for those living off the plantation, and 79% for the tani families. The blood relations living with the families were the in-laws of the head of the family in 32, 38 and 20% of the cases respectively.

c. The Number of Wage Earners In Tables 18 through 35 the number and percentage Of wage earners for the various types of wage earner families has been figured. All persons who worked for the plantation during the period of investigation, regardless of the time worked or the size of the wage earned, were counted as wage earners. (1) Persons who were employed for wages outside the plantation under investigation were not counted. A digest of the results of Tables 18 through 29 is given in the table below.
(1) The total daily wages of a family divided by the number of wage earners does not, thus, give an accurate picture of the normal daily earning derived from the plantation.

AVERAGE NUMBER OF WAGE EARNERS PER FAMILY Province:Type of plantationLiving on the plantationLiving off the plantation field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. ^skilled laborersfield labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. &skilled-laborers West Javatea2.21.81.71.5— rubber1.7--1.4-- Central Java rubber1.91.91.31.51.41.1 tobacco———- a)1.31.0 sugar---1.31.11.3 East Javacoffee2.02.32.0— rubber2.21.71.91.9—— tobacco2.0—1.62.1—1.0 sugar-—-1.61.31.4 timber1.3—1.11.1 b)1.11.0

a) Excluding 38 field laborer families
b) Excluding 2Θ field laborer families The number of wage earners could not be accurately determined in the case of 38 families working for a Central Javanese tobacco plantation and of 29 families on both timber reserves. These families had an agreement with the plantation whereby they would care for a certain section of the plantation for a certain period. They received term payments (a contracted sum would be paid in term payments) and other advantages (on the timber reserves, for example, they could use part of the ground placed under their care for crops of their own) for this care. Just as in most tani families almost all of the family members were at one time or another involved in this work, so also in the case of the timber reserves it was not possible to draw a line between work for the enterprise and work for personal ends. From the above chart it appears that the wage earner families living on the plantation have in general a larger number of wage earners per family than those living off the plantation, while in both categories the number per family decreases in the following order: field laborers, factory laborers, and supervisors and skilled laborers. The small number of wage earners per family in the timber enterprises must be attributed to the fact that timber work cannot in general be done by women, and as pointed out in Tables 21 through 23 and 27 through 29 the wage earners here are almost without exception men. In the following table the percentage of wage earners in each age group is figured for the various groups of wage earners living

on and off the plantation. THE NUMBER AND THE PERCENTAGE OF WAGE EARNERS IN THE DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS Age group in yearsAverage number of wage earnersper family livingon the plantationlivingoff the plantation fieldfactorysuperv. & skilledfieldfactorysuperv. i skilled laborerslaborerslaborerslaborerslaborerslaborers 0-120.10.00.10.10.00.0 12 - 160.10.10.10.10.00.0 16 - 611.81.81.51.21.11.2 over 600.0———-- The number of wage earners as a percentage of the number of family members for each age group Age group ——~——-—~———————~—— in yearsliving on the plantationliving off the plantation field laborersfactory laborerssuperv. & skilled laborersfield laborersfactory laborerssuperv. & skilled laborers 0-1293650— 12 - 1662442930147 16 - 61808055494539 over 6014---— From this table it appears that the wage earners are found primarily to be in the normal laboring age. la all age groups the percentage of wage earners among families living on the plantation is higher than among families living off the plantation. This percentage in the most important laboring age group, 16-61 years, for families living on the plantation is much smaller for supervisors and skilled laborers than for field laborers; while for families living off the plantation it diminishes in the following-order:field laborers, factory laborers, and supervisors and skilled laborers. It is further noteworthy that the percentage of wage earners in the 12-16 year age group, that is the group of the adolescent workers, shows a sharp decline in wage earner families both on and off the plantations in the following sequence: field laborers, factory laborers, and supervisors and skilled laborers. The percentage of wage earners in the child labor group (under 12 years) was less than 10 in all categories, and in the cases where it Occurred the work was of an assisting nature. Only one wage earner in all the families investigated was above 60 years of age. The following table computes the percentage of male and female

wage earners in the 16-61 year age group for the various types of wage earner families. THE PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE WAGE EARNERS IN THE 16-61 YEAR AGE GROUP Nature of the wage earner familyThe number of wage earners in % of the total number of family members in the 16-61 year age group living on the plantationliving off plantationthe malefemalemalefemale field laborers94667524 factory laborers94668110 supervisors and skilled laborers8227761 From the above table it appears that in the 16-61 year age group only the wives of field laborers and factory laborers living on the plantation are to any sizable extent engaged in plantation work. Among children (totaling 4% in the case of males and 4.4% in the case of females) and adolescents (26.3% among males and 30.2% among females) the number of girl wage earners was somewhat larger than the number of boy wage earners in families living on as well as off the plantation. Finally the following table gives a summary of the percentage of wage earners among heads of families and wives of heads of families for the various types of wage earner families: 81% of the male and 68% of the female wage earners are found in this group.
...... Table on page 18.
From the above table it appears that a large percentage of the wives of those families living on the plantation work; even 31% of the wives of Supervisors work. On the other hand, the wives of laborers, supervisors and skilled laborers living off the plantation only work on the plantation occasionally. The data from the individual plantations varies greatly on this particular point.

THE PERCENTAGE OF WAGE EARNERS IN THE CATEGORY ’’HEADS OF FAMILIES AND WIVES OF HEADS OF FAMILIES” The number of wage earners in % of the total number of family members in the category ’’heads of families and wives of heads of families" Nature of the wage earner familyliving on the plantationliving off the plantation malefemalemalefemale field laborers99688323 factory laborers100709311 supervisors and skilled laborers9831991

d. Variation inthe Sizeof Families InTables 36 through 39 the familiesare grouped according to thenumber ofmembers. The followingtable gives a summary of this. VARIATIONS INFAMILYSIZE NumberofNumber of families HiAnibeT*s VX JLti. KX VX «I·. U perlivingon thelivingoff the familyplantationplantation fieldfactory superv. &fieldfactory superv. & labor-labor-skilledlabor-labor-skilled erserslaborerserserslaborerstanis 240141423432 3108242080161642 41003331173343483 55118282184533113 618922130292482 726951122739 > 7-142182229 total319105128696148159390

VARIATIONS IN FAMILY SIZE Number ofIn % of the total number of families members ------------------—-----------—---------------------- per familyliving on the plantationliving off the plantationtanis field factory labor-labor-superv. & skilled laborersfield factorysuperv. & skilled laborers labor-erslabor- ers ersers 21313113321 334231611111011 431312425232121 516172231302129 6691719201521 7167781710 "7-1335147 total100100100100100100100 From the above tables it appears that the families living off the plantation are on the average larger than those living on the plantation. There were few large families among the latter group. Both on and off the plantation the families became larger in the following order: field laborers, factory laborers, and supervisors and skilled laborers. If one were to arrange the families according to size in an ascending series, it would appear, that upon reaching 25% of the families in the series (First Quarter), after reaching 50% (Median), and after reaching 75% (Third Quarter), the size of the family is as follows: THE DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILY SIZE Average size offamily firstthird Place of domicileType of familyquartermedianquarter on the plantationfield laborers2.93.64.4 factory laborers supervisors &3.03.94.9 skilled laborers3.44.55.6 off the plantationfield laborers3.94.85.7 factory laborers supervisors &4.04.95.9 skilled laborers4.15.36.8 tanis4.15.16.1

THE DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILY SIZE 1 e 1 d 1 ■ a b o r e r s a c t o r y 1 a b o r e r s u P &

r. v i s o r s a n d k i 1 1 e d 1 a b o r e r s 1 e 1 d 1 a b o r e r s a c t o r y

supervisors and skilled laborers. Tani families are normally slightly larger than the families of factory laborers living off the plantation. In order to appraise the composition of the 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 person families the following table gives the percentage of ’'normal" families of the total number of families. A "normal" family consists of a husband and wife and the children of these two. Thus a 2 person family is only a husband and wife, a 3 person family is a husband and wife and their one child, a 4 person family is husband, wife and their two children, etc. THE PERCENTAGE OF "NORMAL" FAMILIES AMONG THE VARIOUS TYPES OF FAMILIES Number of members per familyThe number of "normal" families in % of the total number of familiestanis living on the plantationliving off the plantation fieldfactorysuperv. &fieldfactorysuperv. & labor-labor-skilledlabor-labor-skilled erserslaborerserserslaborers 29310093705067100 378926579637574 472614573683557 565895671673959 667562753552544 750333361833033 Considering the small number of 7 person families among families living on the plantation and the small number of 2 person families living off the plantation, it appears that the percentage of "normal" families among those living on the plantation and also among tanis declines rather regularly as the size of the family increases. This decline is greater among supervisors and skilled labor and tani families, which types of families normally incorporate "other than blood relatives" as has been previously pointed out, than among field and factory laborer families. With an occasional exception, the percentage of "normal" families among wage earner families living off the plantation remains constant.

2. The Age of Families and Their Various Members
   a. The Age of the Families As regards the age of the persons involved in this investigation it should be said that this could only be obtained through round-about methods and estimation. Determination of age was especially difficult among the older people and oftentimes it had to be judged by their memory of certain remarkable events (i.e., the eruption of the Krakatau in 1883) or by the age of their children and grandchildren. Naturally the ages obtained in this

manner might differ considerably from the actual ages. Table 40 gives the average age of the heads of families and their wives on the various plantations which were investigated. The ages of widows and widowers, unmarried or divorced heads of families, and heads of families with two or more wives, are not included in this table. THE AGEOF HEADS OF FAMILIES AND THEIR WIVES Averageagein years Type of familyliving on the plantationliving off the plantation manwifemanwife field laborers36293931 factory laborers...33273730 supervisors and skilled laborers..37283830 tanis. .--4535 From this table it appears that the tani families are somewhat older than the wage earner families, and that among the latter those living off the plantation seem to be somewhat older than those living on the plantation. Of the various types of families working as plantation wage earners the factory laborers seem to be somewhat younger than the others. The heads of families are on the average 6-10 years older than their spouses in all categories. These general conclusions are borne out by the individual plantation statistics (See Table 40). Finally the following table show the age of "normal" families of various size. The table gives the age of the eldest child as well as of the husband and wife.
......... Table on page 23.
In the above table it appears that the age of the parents in the supervisor and skilled laborer and tani families has no relatidnship to the age of the eldest child or the number of children in the family. On the average the husband and wife in the tani families are somewhat older than the husband and wife of wage earner families with the same number of children. It also appears from the above statistics that the age difference between the wife and the eldest child is on the average 18-19 years for supervisors and skilled labor families, 20-21 years for field and factory laborer families, and 21-22 years for tani families.

THE AGE OF THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY, HIS WIFE, AND THEIR ELDEST CHILD AMONG VARIOUS SIZES OF "NORMAL" FAMILIES Average age in years Number ------------------------------------------------------------■ ofLiving on the plantation members------------------------------------------------------------ perfieldfactorysupervisors & familylaborerslaborersskilled laborers manwifeeldest childmanwifeeldest childmanwifeeldest child 2312527223732 3362963428538277 4383183529839309 539309332710352711 6403312363212402814 7554827403715352713 Average age in years Number of members per familyfield laborersLiving off the plantationtanis factory laborerssuperv. & skilled laborers man wife eld-man wife eld-man wife eld-man wife eld- estestestest childchildchildchild 2 333 3527 28831 3329 28743 3629 29958 4750 3611 43630835288402813443612 5393111393111393213433413 6413313393211403416433514 7433615413411423314443515 The above mentioned age differences are influenced on the one hand by the presence of older step children who often differ only little in age with their step mothers (1) and on the other hand by the absence of older children who may already have married out of the family.

(1) This occurs less frequently among families living off the plantation than among those living on the plantation and tanis percentagewise it accounts for 5%, 10%, and 11% respectively of the total number of "eldest" children.

b. The Age of the Family Members In the following table the various categories of family members of the various types of families are divided into five year age brackets. THE AGE OF THE FAMILY MEMBERS Number of family members Age ------------------------------------------------------------ inLiving on the plantation years ------------------------------------------------—--------- field laborersfactory laborerssupervisors & skilled laborers malefemaletotalmalefemaletotalmalefemaletotal 0- 595100195523789342862 5-107491165362157563389 10-15532982141327353267 15-20274471111526242145 20-2526497593645124052 25-305795152322557243357 30-356459123211233332558 35-407560135191332362359 40-453530651392228937 45-504514591192071017 50-552313364488311 55-60729314448 60 and over681443711617 total5875941181229198427312267579
........Remainder of table on page 25.
From the above statistics it appears that in the age brackets under 20 years the number of males (2345) is somewhat larger than the number of females (2207). In the second age group from 20 to 30 years the number of females is much larger than the number of males, while in the upper age brackets the number of men seems on the average to be larger again.

THE AGE OF THE FAMILY MEMBERS Number of family members Age --------------------------------------------------------------- inLiving off the plantation years---------------------------------------------- tanis fieldfactorysuperv. &~~ laborerslaborersskilled laborers malef e— maleto- male fe-to- talmalefe- maleto- talmalefe- maleto- tal taimale 0- 527027254277631405953112138113251 5-1029930560468691375969128169142311 10-151781953734028686255117132112244 15-20101107208181937523688112105217 20-25711171881921402233556461125 25-30892072962447712648746171132 30-351621603223544793537726592157 35-401701162864121623933727774151 40-45109871961816343211435350103 45-508854142208282221436063123 50-55544397981723932574299 55-60 60 and3426605493710381553 over2338616152152429632487 total16481727337538036374343943687510899642053 The following table shows the number of family members in the age groups 0-5,5-10,10-15, 15-50, 50-60, and over 60 years as a percentile of the total number of family members per group for each of the investigated groups. THE NUMBER OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN % OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN CERTAIN AGE CLASSES Number of family members in % of Agethe total number of family members in -------------------------------------------------- yearsLiving on the plantation supervisors & field laborers factory laborers skilled laborers malefemaletotalmalefemaletotalmalefemaletotal 0- 5161717231921111111 5-10131514161113181215 10-15957676111212 15-50565958516055536056 50-60534333433 60 and over111222423

THE NUMBER OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN % OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN CERTAIN AGE CLASSES Number of family members in % of Agethe total number of family members in ;--------------------.------------------------------------- yearsLiving off the plantation ----------------------------------------------- t-anis supervisors & fieldfactoryskilled laborerslaborerslaborers malefe- maleto- talmalefe- maleto- talmalefe- maleto- male fe-total taimale 0- 5161616201719131213131212 5-10181818181918131615161515 10-151111111189141313121212 15-50484949464947525051455449 50-60 60 and545434645967 over122243163634 The percentage of family members from 15 to 50 years is larger among families living on the plantation than among families living off the plantation.

3. The Height and Weight of Family Members
   a. Height and Weight at Different Ages In Tables 41 through 44 the average height and weight of all male and female family members of various ages was recorded for each plantation. The general average of this is given on the following graphs. age in years WEIGHT AT VARIOUS AGES age in years

From the above graphs it appears quite evident that both males and females grow at approximately the same rate as regards height up to their 15th year and as regards weight up to their 18th year. After that the males gain ever more in height and in weight, until at maturity (in general occuring among men between their 25th and 30th year and among women between their 20th and 25th year) they are from 10 - 12 centimeters taller and from 5-9 kilograms heavier. It also appears that among both men and women the increase in height diminishes slightly after the 7th year and more rapidly after the 15th year, but once full grown their height remains fairly constant up to a ripe old age. As regards weight at various ages it can be noted that the yearly weight increase among both males and females begins slowly (among men until the 8th year and among women until the 6th year), but then increases rather rapidly until a maximum yearly increase is reached among men between 15 and 18 years and among women between 13 and 15 years. Above 18 years of age only the weight of men increases. This is further clarified in the following table which gives the yearly increase in height and weight. THE RATE OF GROWTH Age inyearsAverage yearly increase in height in centimetersAverage yearly increase ihxweight in kilograms menwomenmenwomen 1 -38.19.41.82.0 3 -56.65.51.71.8 5 -76.26.21.61.3 7 -94.04.81.41.7 9 -113.64.11.52.0 11 -134.13.62.02.2 13 -154.34.32.83.5 15 -183.53.03.32.2 18 -231.50.21.00.1 23 -280.20.10.20.1 From Tables 41 through 44 it appears that the statistics for the individual plantations show much the same picture as the general averages given here. Wherever unusual discrepancies occur they can be explained by one person having an unusual body build for his age so that his measurements unduly influence the average which oftentimes relates to only a few persons. From Graphs 5 and 6 we can see that the adult men and women from West Java (respectively 49-52 and 40-44 kg.) are the heaviest and those from Central Java ( respectively 46-48 and 38-42 kg.) the lightest. While these weight differences become increasingly apparent among the men from the 5th year onward, they only occur in the women shortly before maturity. Scarcely greater are the differences between the six types of plantations which were investigated. The heaviest of the adult persons are in general found

on the tea plantations and the lightest on the rubber plantations (Graphs 7 and 8). From Graphs 1 through 4 it appears that there is little difference in either the average male or average female height in either West, Central or East Java or among the six types of plantations which were investigated.

b. The Relationship Between Height and Weight In Tables 45 and 46 the average weight of men and of women is given according to different heights as subdivided into height cate gories of 10 centimeters each. The general average of all this is given in the following graph. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEIGHT AND WEIGHT height in centimeters From the above graph we see that up to about 125 cm. in height both men and women weigh about the same. From 125 to 145 cm., that would be at an age of from 11 to 17 years, the women are definitely heavier than the men, while above 145 cm. the opposite is true. Furthermore it can be seen that the weight increases most rapidly up to 145 cm., as has been said above, while above that height the weight increase per added centimeter becomes less, especially for women. One must keep in mind that many women are fully mature when they reach 145 cm,, while most men reach 160 cm. However, the sharp decline in the weight increase per added centimeter for women taller than 145 cm, is not found among men taller than 160 cm Moreover it appears from the following table that the weight per centimeter of height continues to increase for men but only increases up to 140 cm. for women.

WEIGHT PER CENTIMETER OF HEIGHT IN THE VARIOUS HEIGHT CATEGORIES Weight (in kilograms) per cm. of height in various height categories (in cm.) Sexto 8080- 9090- 100100- 110110- 120120- 130130- 140140- 150150- 160160- 170170 & up male0.120.140.140.160.170.190.230.280.300.310.33 female0.120.130.140.160.170.190.250.290.290.29- In addition to the above reproduced statistics it also appears from Tables 47 through 50 which give the height and weight of men and women from 26 through 45 years, that the full grown men are somewhat heavier than the full grown women for each centimeter of length: i.e. 0.31 (49.10/158.29 kg.) to 0.29 kg. (42.81/147.56 kg.). As regards the individual plantation statistics it can be said that due to the limited number of persons involved there was sometimes great discrepancy on this point. The differences between the various types of plantations were much slighter; here it is apparent that in the greatest height categories (namely, men above 140 cm. and women between 130 and 160 cm.) the men and women on the tea and coffee plantations were heavier than those on the remaining types of plantations. In height groups above 120 cm. the men and women from West Java seem to be heaviest and those from Central Java lightest, while in the height groups of less than 120 cm. there is little regional differ ence.

c. Height and Weight of Men and Women from 26 through 45 Years In Tables 47 through 50 the average height and weight of men and women from«26 through 45 years has been recorded by plantation for the family groups which were investigated. These age limita- tions were adopted in order to remove, in so far as possible, the influence of youth and old age on height and weight. From the graphs on page 26 we have already seen that both men and women are full grown by their 26th year, after which the height but not the weight remains constant until old age. Principally among women the weight begins to decline after the 30th year; it must be remembered that pregnancies usually occur between a woman’s 20th and 30th year. The influence of this upon weight, an influence which undoubtedly exists, cannot be determined by these short term investigations. The following table incorporates the total statistics from Tables 47 through 50 for families living on and off the plantation.

THE HEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF MEN AND WOMEN FROM 26 THROUGH 45 YEARS Average height perAverage weight per person in centimeters person in kilograms Type of familyLivingLivingLivingLiving on the off theon the off the plantation plantation plantation plantation male female male female male female male female field laborers156.9146.1158.0148.048.743.048.542.5 factory laborers158.0147.1159.3148.350.044.248.943.3 supervisors & skilled laborers159.6147.2|61.0149.151.544.851.243.2 tanis--158.2147.3--48.941.9 In the age category from 26 through 45 years the men and women of the wage earner families who live on the plantation are on the average somewhat shorter and heavier than those living off the plantation. In both of these groups the tallest and heaviest indi- viduals are in general found among the supervisors and skilled laborers and the shortest and lightest among the field laborers. In the case of the men, the choice of the plantation may have been of influence in the above differences which are in any event very small. The women from -tani families are somewhat shorter and lighter than those in the field laborer families living off the plantation, while the men are just about as tall and as heavy as the men of field and factory laborer families living off the plantation. Tables 47 through 50 show that although the differences are slight the heaviest persons are encountered on tea plantations,the tallest on timber reserves, and the lightest on rubber plantations. Finally it appears that the height and weight of the men on the majority of the plantations declines in the sequence:supervisors and skilled laborers, factory laborers, and field laborers. For a better insight into the dispersion of the height and weight of men and women in the 26 to 45 year age category, the group has been divided into classes and expressed in the following graph in which the number of persons in each class is expressed in percentages of the total number of people.
........Graphs on page 31.
In making the above graphs the people were divided into height classes which increased by five centimeters and into weight classes which increased by five kilograms each. Classes of 5 cm. were used for the height groups because it appeared both during the investigation and from the statistics of those plantations where more than one investigation was held that measuring errors greater than

THE DISPERSION OF THE HEIGHT OF MEN AND WOMEN FROM 26 THROUGH 45 YEARS OF AGE THE DISPERSION OF THE WEIGHT OF MEN AND WOMEN FROM 26 THROUGH 45 YEARS OF AGE height in centimeters 5 cm. were seldom made. Account also had to be taken of the tendency to round off to the nearest 5 cm. The weight classes were made relatively larger because it appeared that in the course of a year, weight, unlike height, is subject to great fluctuations. The chances for error were also greater due to inaccurate scales and to weighing persons with their clothing on. Furthermore the weights show a relatively greater dispersion than the heights as appears from the above graphs which give a rather similar picture. It further appears from the above graphs that the largest part of the men (87%) are between 150 and 170 cm. tall and weigh between 40 and 60 kg. (94%). Most of the women (90%) are between 140 and 160 cm. tall and weigh between 35 and 55 kg. (91%). The relatively greater dispersion of weights becomes clearer when we compare extremes. It appears that the heaviest men and women easily weigh twice as much as the lightest while the tallest men and women do not even exceed the shortest by l| times in height.

d. Height and Weight per Family Member Next to age, height and especially weight are factors which must be taken into account when evaluating consumption figures; especially food consumption figures which, as will be seen, are given per consumption unit, i.e., per family. Tables 51 and 52 give the average height and weight per family member for each of the plantations which were investigated. The following table gives the general average.
.........Table on page 32.
The heights and weights of those family members not measured or weighed were interpolated from the graphs on page 26. The general average was scarcely changed by this.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT PER FAMILY MEMBER Average height perAverage weight per family member in cm. family member in kg Type of family excluding persons whose height was not measured including persons whose height was not measured excluding persons whose weight was not measured including persons whose weight was not measured onoffonoffonoffonoff field laborers131.5129.7131.1129.734.532.034.332 factory laborers129.5128.9128.8128.734.431.734.031 supervisors & skilled laborers135.8133.6136.0133.437.034.337.034 tanis133.8133.734.034 From the above table it appears that the average height of the family members of the wage earner families living on the plantation was slightly (0.3 cm.) greater than for wage earner families living off the plantation; the average weight, on the other hand, showed a greater difference (2 to 3 kg.). In both groups the members of the supervisors’ and skilled laborers’ families are noticeably taller and heavier than those of field and factory laborers’ families. The statistics for the tani families are very similar to those of the supervisors' and skilled laborers’ families living off the plantation. As regards the individual plantation statistics, some of the plantations vary greatly from the general averages given here; in addition to the already mentioned reasons, this is especially due to the unequal sizes of families, the influence of which is considered below.

e. Height and Weight per Family Member in Families of Various Sizes Tables 53 through 60 give the average height and weight per family member for families of various sizes for the different plantations. One hundred thirty four families with 674 family members could not be incorporated in these tables because data on the height and/or weight of one or more of these families’ members were missing. The following table summarizes the total averages of Tables 53 through 60.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT PER FAMILY MEMBER IN FAMILIES OF VARIOUS SIZES Average height per family member in cm. ofLivingon theLivingoff the membersplantationplantation pertanis familyfieldfac-superv.& fieldfac-superv. & labor-toryskilledlabor-toryskilled erslabor-labor-erslabor-labor-ersersersers 2151153155149154150149 3136135141139141143143 4130128135130133139136 5125123134128129134133 6124123135127125133130 7129130128126119129132 >7-117136132128130132 Average weight per family member in kg. Numbers of members perLiving on the plantationLiving off the plantationt ani s fieldfac-superv. &fieldfac-superv. & family labor-toryskilledlabor-toryskilled erslabor-labor-erslabor-labor-ersersersers

246.051.047.343.844.942.342.0
337.136.840.138.137.740.537.8
433.034.538.133.834.036.535.5
531.330.834.731.331.835.0*33.5
628.829.036.230.429.834.631.9
733.231.530.829.226.532.230.9 >7-25.234.832.029.731.134.3 From the above tables we can clearly see that the height and weight per family member declines sharply among the 2, 3, 4 and 5 person family groups as the family size increases. The decline becomes less sharp in the 5,6, and 7 person family groups, while above this number the height and weight per family member seems to increase again slightly. Excepting the fact that adults from families living on the plantation aie on the average somewhat heavier than those living off the plantation, the family members of the 2 member families living on the plantation are noticeably heavier than 2 member family groups living off the plantation; this is due primarily to a larger percentage of them being *normal" families (ca. 95% as opposed to ca. 70%, see also p. 21)'. Among the 3, 4, and larger family groups there is practically no difference per family member in height and weight for those living on and those living off the plantation. The family members of the 3, 4, 5, and 6 member families of supervisors and skilled laborers are on the average somewhat heavier and taller than those of the

other family groups. This is primarily due to greater individual height and weight (see page 31) and to somewhat older children (see pages 23 and 25-26).

B. Housing and Social Arrangements
1. The Housing
a. The Manner of Housing As previously stated on page 9, of the 1555 wage earner families investigated, 568 lived on the plantation and 987 lived off the plantation. Since the statistics on the actual number of wage earner families living on and off the plantation do not exist and also since the number is continually changing, a random number had to be selected for investigation on those plantations which worked with families both on and off the plantation. Only among the field laborers was the stipulation made (among factory laborers and supervisors and skilled laborers the choice was often too limited) that the number could not be less than ten. The above figures as well as the individual plantation figures in no sense indicate the extent to which plantations draw their labor from persons living either on or off the plantation. Table 61 gives the breakdown of the various families which were investigated into those living on and those living off the plantation. The general totals are given in the following table. THE MANNER OF HOUSING Type offamilyNumber of families Living on the plantationLiving off the plantation
field laborers.... 319696
factorylaborers.. 106147 supervisors and skilled laborers.. 143144
tanis...... ·390
In figuresthe group given hereof the supervisors and skilled differ appreciably from thoselaborers the into which this group was divided for purposes of the investigation. This is primarily caused by the 14 families who live in service houses of the timber reserve 0.J. ho. 1 which due to their scattered location (a plantation housing area did not exist) were included in the investigation among those families living off the plantation. Furthermore a small number of families living either on or off the plantation were annexed to the other group because otherwise their number would be too small to be collated. The above chart shows

that about 30% of the field laborers, about 40% of the factory laborers, and about 50% of the supervisors and skilled laborers who were investigated lived in plantation houses. Plantation living areas, as already noted on page 9, are found mostly in West and East Java, and especially among those plantations which due to their isolated position (on Java mostly the plantations situated at higher altitudes) cannot recruit sufficient laborers from the surrounding areas. The labor supply has to be drawn from a wide area and therefore must be housed on the plantation. The families living off the plantation are (in Table 61) further subdivided into families Which live.in their own houses and those which live in a family house or other person’s house. The following table gives a summary of the total results of this breakdown. THE HOUSING OF THE FAMILIES LIVING OFF THE PLANTATION Type of familyNumber of families in own housein family or other person's house field laborers. 61779
factory laborers.....13512
supervisors and skilled laborers 12321 tanis.... 3846 The families living off the plantation live from 85% (supervisors and skilled laborers) to 98% (tanis) in their own houses, while the remaining homes belonged mostly to family members (often parents) who charged no rent. As with the families living on the plantation, house rent, varying from 25 to 300 cents a month, was rarely paid. From the individual plantation statistics it appears that the lower percentage of own homes among the supervisors and skilled laborers living off the plantation was due to the supervisors and skilled laborers of the timber reserves among whom only 19 of the 34 families which were investigated lived in their own home.

b. The Physical Structure of the Houses
Table 62 gives the general average of the area of the houses
of the various types of family groups which were investigated. The total average of this is given in the following chart.

THE SIZE OF THE HOUSES Type of familyAverage area in square meters Living on the plantationLiving off the plantation field laborers 2448 factory laborers... 2655 supervisors and skilled laborers 4584 tanis72 These area figures include the areas of kitchens, stalls, storage spaces, etc. which are in the house. From the above table it appears that the house area of the wage earner families living off the plantation is approximately twice as great as that of the same group living on the plantation. Among both groups the houses of the supervisors and skilled laborers are quite a bit larger than those of the field and factory laborers. The tani houses are somewhat smaller than those of the supervisors and skilled laborers living off the plantation. Table 62 shows us that the statistics for the individual plantations often vary greatly from the general averages discussed above. Notably small houses are found on some of the East Java plantations where the wage earner families are housed in group houses (mostly warehouses) in which as a rule each family is assigned one room. Furthermore the non-plantation houses in West Java are quite a bit smaller than those of Central and East Java. In the cases of plantations which employ personnel from both on and off the plantation the houses of those off the plantation seem to be somewhat larger than those on the plantation. Tables 63 through 66 analyze the type of floors, walls, and roofs of the houses of the various plantation families which were investigated. From these tables it appears that the houses of families living off the plantation mostly have walls of woven bamboo, roofs of tile, and a hardened earth floor. The following table which expresses amounts in % of the total will shed further light on this.
.........Table on page 37.
In addition there are a sizable number of houses in the plantation housing areas with stone walls, zinc roofs and/or cement floors, while the majority of houses on foundations with wooden floors (principally on the plantation) or of woven bamboo (off the plantation) are found in West Java. Easily 30% of the houses of the field and factory laborers who lived off the plantation had a roof of nipa palm or something of that sort.

WALLS, ROOFS, AND FLOORS OF THE HOUSES Type of family Number of houses with a wall of woven bamboo in % of-the total number of houses Number of houses with a tile roof in % of the total number of houses Number of houses with an earthen floor in % of the total number of houses situated on the planta- tionsituated off the planta- tionsituated on the planta- tionsituated off the planta- tionsituated on the planta- tionsituated off the plantation field laborers858955645683 factory laborers739745674199 super v. δε skilled laborers577663904174 tanis—84—83—75 As regards the inhabitability of the houses it can be noted that the plantation houses are generally more sturdily constructed and are better maintained than the non-plantation houses. On some plantations, as we have already seen on page 36, the available living space was very small. Furthermore, the homes of the supervisors and skilled laborers, especially among those living off the plantation, were very outstanding as compared with the others. Finally let it be said that, with the exception of kitchens, most additional buildings (almost entirely stalls and rice sheds) were located on the property of the tanis who, as we shall see later, hold the largest amount of land.

2. The Social Arrangements
   Table 67 gives a summary of social arrangements provided by
   the various plantations for their working personnel. From this table it appears that when a plantation operates either partially or completely with personnel living on the plantation, more social arrangements are provided than when the working force does not live on the plantation. This should arouse no surprise since it will be noted that most of the former type plantations, due to their isolated location, have to attract the working personnel to them. Good housing recreational facilities, established religious arrangements, convenient shopping arrangements, decent medical and hygenic arrangements, and family subsidies in event of birth, marriage, and death, in addition to high wages, are the most common labor attractions used. The necessary measures to bring this about are much easier in a plantation housing area where the plantation can

exercise some control and where the inhabitants are known to the plantation than in the housing areas off the plantation which are usually dispersed and oftentimes have only a relatively small number of their inhabitants working for the plantation and even then oftentimes only in a very remote capacity. Usually the social arrangements with regard to this latter group of people consist only of free issuance of simple medication upon request. In addition, on plantations which use personnel from both on and off the plantation, they can also benefit from some of the social arrangements provided for personnel living on the plantation. As an interesting fact it might finally be noted that in addition to the timber reserves, where injury compensation and social arrangements are quite advanced, some of the crop plantations have already started with a type of support for aged workers.

C. Possession of Land and Livestock
1.Possession of Land
a. The Number of Land Owners and the Type of Land of the Families Living off the ^Plantation In the following inquiry into land ownership only the land possession is included of those:
1.in whose name lands were entered in the village register which had not yet passed into the hand of another, and
2.who inherited, bought, or in some other manner acquired lands which they had in their possession but which were not entered under their name in the village register because the transfer costs had not yet been paid. Lots in the plantation housing area, rented lands, lands held on a share crop basis or lands used in any other manner (i.e., con- tract lands on the timber reserves) do not therefore form part of the landed property of the exploiters, for they exercise no ownership. Among families living on the plantation land ownership was so minimal that it is not felt necessary to inquire into the matter further here. Therefore in the following only the land ownership of those families living off the plantation will be discussed. On Java lands may in the first instance be divided into:
1.Sawahs: these are technically or non-technically flooded agricultural lands
2.Dry grounds: these are dry agricultural lands which can further be subdivided into tegalans and garden-plots. The latter are almost always found near houses. Usually they are closely planted since the crop consists of a relatively large share of perennial plants.
3.Fish ponds and nipa (palm) woods: these are lands which are almost always under water and where fish are qdught which may or may not be scientifically bred. Tables 68 through 71 have divided the families living off the plantation into the type of land they own. Sweet water fish ponds, which are found only among a few tani families, near two plantations (see note at bottom of Table 71), are included in the tegalans.

A summary of the number of land owners is given in the following table. THE NUMBER OF LAND OWNERS Type of family (Living off the plantation) NumberNumber ofNumberof offamiliesfamilies familiesowningowning land in %land of the total Number of families with the type of land mentioned below in % of the total number of land owning families number of familiessawahtegalangarden- plot field laborers69671495482384 factory laborers1476697511798 supervisors and skilled laborers14472103431295 tanis390100389825187 From the above tableit appearsthat overtwo thirds ofthe wage earner families owned land. The percentage varied only slightly among the various types of wage earner families. The number of sawah and tegalan owners among the wage earner families was relatively much smaller than among the tani families. The land ownership of the wage earner families is often of different composition than that of the tani families. The following table, which expresses the various combinations of land ownership in percentages of the total, throws further light on this. THE TYPE OF LAND OWNERSHIP Type ofNumber of families with the combinations of familyland ownership listed below in % of the total number of land owner families (Living —---------------------------------------------------------- off the plantation)sawah + sawah tegalan +·+■ garden-tegalan plotsawah 4- garden- plotsawahtegalan tegalan gar- 4-den- garden-plot plottotal field laborers8235321139100 factory laborers12-3714144100 superv. & skilled laborers10303255100 tanis316441963100

Among the wage earner families the land ownership in no less than 533 of the 695 cases consisted of sawah plus garden-plot or only garden-plot. The tanis usually own sawah plus tegalan plus garden-plot or sawah plus garden-plot.

b. The Size and Tax Rates of the Lands
Table 72 gives the average land ownership of all families liv-
ing off the plantation. A general average of the total averages of this table as well as the average total of each land owner is given below. Type of family (Living off the plantation) field laborers factory laborers superv. & skilled laborers tanis THE SIZE OF THE OWNED LANDS Average area in hectares Average per family Average per individual owner sawah tega- garden-total sawah tega- garden- total lan plot land lan plot land
0.130.090.080.300.390.520.140.42
0.150.040.090.280.430.340.150.42
0.170.020.090.280.530.250.130.38
0.630.540.241.410.761.050.281.42 The tani families have about five times as much land as the three groups of wage earner families which were investigated. The latter each own about the same amount of land. The difference per individual land owner is not so great since, as seen above, only about 70% of the wage earner families own land. In addition the most notable fact is that the garden-plots of the tani families are on the average twice as large as those of the wage earner families regardless of the type of family of the latter. From Table 72 it appears that despite varied results among the plantations, the land ownership per family of the three types of wage earner families which were investigated is about the same in West, Central, and East Java. The exceedingly large land ownership of the tani families living near the twice-investigated plantation
W.J. ru. 1 (West Java) is the reason that the land ownership of the Central Javanese tani families is less than a third of that of West Java, and that of East Java only half. A more general conclusion about land ownership in these three provinces may not be drawn from this data. The size of the land ownership does not form a basis for judging the income derived from the land since the lands, even

among the families of one plantation, are often of widely varying quality. The tax rate—i.e., a tax on land which is levied according to the productive capacity of the sawahs and dry grounds of each district—gives a better insight into the true meaning of the land ownership in this regard. Therefore, Table 73 gives a breakdown per plantation of the land tax which has to be paid by the families living off the plantation. The general average tax per family as well as per hectare of land is given in the following table. THE LAND TAX Type of family (Living off the plantation)Average yearly land tax per family in centsAverage land tax per hectare in cents sawah tega- garden-total landssawahtega- langarden- total lanplotplotlands field laborers1121421147850160263493 factory laborers104731142718177329509 superv. & skilled laborers140332175831121375632 tanis4537858589725144238417 From the above table it appears that the tani families which own an average of five times as much land as the various wage earner families are taxed about four times as much. From Table 74, which lists the land tax per hectare, it appears that the quality of the sawahs in West Java, where the sawahs are almost entirely dependent upon rain, is less than those of Central and East Java, especially those near tobacco and sugar plantations where many technically flooded sawahs are encountered. The differences in land tax of tani families among the three provinces is closely dependent upon the average land tax per hectare, which is lower than for the wage earner families, since tani families with lesser quality grounds were encountered near many of the plantations which were investigated.

c. Utilization of the Land Tables 75 through 78 give a summary of the manner in which the lands of the families were used during the investigation. Here, in first instance, a distinction was made between lands which were exploited by the owner and those exploited by someone else. This latter,,category was further subdivided into: rented lands,
2.lands let out to sharecroppers, and 3,other forms of land subletting.

In the following table the area of ground which is exploited by the owner is expressed in percentage of the total land owned. LAND UTILIZATION Type of familyArea of land exploited by the owner (Living off thein % of the total land owned plantation)----------------------------------------- sawahtegalangarden-plottotal lands field laborers819810091 factory laborers6710010083 supervisors and skilled laborers679410079 tanis839710091 Primarily sawahs are let out to others for exploitation. That this occurs more among factory laborers and supervisors and skilled laborers than among field laborers and tanis is understandable from the nature of their activities which allow the former group less freedom. At the most it might arouse some surprise that the tanis, despite their agrarian nature, do not exploit about a sixth of their sawahs themselves. For the most part the lands here involved (among other types of families too) are leased to sugar and tobacco plantations. In these instances the rent price, which has been established by the land rent ordinance, is substantially above the usual local rent paid. Next to renting lands, the letting out to share croppers occurred rather frequently in Central Java, while pawning lands was Encountered almost solely in the princely lands.

Table 79 gives a summary of the ownership rights which were in

existence in the various arqas where investigations were conducted. For further particulars, the reader is referred to this table.

d. Utilization of the Garden-plots Tables 80 through 83 give a summary per plantation of the high or top growth (fruit and other trees), its type and its density for the garden-plots. The following table gives a summary of the number of fruit and other trees per garden-plot and per hectare.
.........Table on page 43.
As regards tree growth, the density of planting of the garden-plots varies only slightly among the various types of families. As a. result, the number of fruit and other trees of the tani families, which as we have already seen had garden-plots double the size of those of wage earner families, were double the number of those of the other types of families. From Tables 80

TREE GROWTH ON THE GARDEN-PLOTS Type of family flivinanfftbp_ „Number of fruitand other trees plantation)per garden-plotper hectare (1)
field laborers............17123
factory laborers..........15108
supervisors and skilled laborers..........16132
o »·· .a «ο » ο · ο β β « o ft e « a · a32113

(1) The area of the house and other buildings has not been deducted from the size of the garden-plot. through 83 it appears that the coconut palm (klapper), the soursop tree (nangka), mango tree (mangga), areca palm (pinang), papaya tree, citrus tree (djeruk), and the djambu tree are the most frequently found on the garden-plots. The importance of the coconut palm in this group is shown by the following statistics. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE COCONUT PALM IN THE TREE GRWOTH OF GARDEN-PLOTS Province Number of fruit Number of coco— Number of coconut and other trees nut palm trees palms in % of the total number of fruit and other trees West Java1.317 Central Java7,776 East Java9.354 94
3.637
2.888 7 37 31 In West Java, where the number of fruit and other trees per hectare is already the smallest, the coconut palm is of relatively less significance than in East and especially in Central Java, in which latter province moreover the most densely planted garden plots are found. Concerning the further utilization of the garden plot for planting (mid and bottom or low growth), for which no statistics are given in this report because only the type of planting can be recorded, it can be noted that this is also much better cared for in Central Java than in West and East Java.
2. Possession of Livestock Tables 84 through 87 give a summary of the type and size of livestock holdings per plantation for the families which were in-

vestigated. In these tables, stock that is loaned out in share crop arrangements is counted, but that which is received in such arrangements is not counted. A summary of the statistics given in the above mentioned tables provides Us with the following picture. POSSESSION OF LIVESTOCK Type ofAverage number of heads per family livestock --------------------------------------------------------- ownedLiving on theLiving off the plantationplantation field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. & skilled laborersfield labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. & skilled labor- erstanis large0.00.10.10.40.30.41.3 small0.00.10.40.60.50.61.1 fowl2.01.95.43.02.34.57.1 From the above table we see that the tani families have more livestock per family than the wage earner families. In this latter group the holdings of large livestock (horses, carabaos and cows) and small livestock (sheep and goats) among families living on the plantation is so insignificant that it may be disregarded. Among wage earners living both on and off the plantation it appears that the number of fowl per family is about twice as large among the supervisors and skilled laborers as among the field and factory laborers. Tables 84 through 87 further indicate that the holdings of large livestock are almost entirely carabaos (West Java) and cows (Central and East Java), while those of small livestock are almost entirely goats, and those of fowl predominantly chickens. Finally we note that the individual plantation statistics on livestock holdings vary greatly. IV. INCOME AND EXPENDITURES

A. Income and Consumption Expenditures
1. Variability of Income The incomes of the wage earner families can in first instance be divided into income received in the form of wages for work on the plantation under investigation and income from other sources.
a. Income from Work for the Plantation The income from wages for labor on plantations which are characterized by the seasonal nature of their work, is not distributed equally over the year. For this reason some plantations were investigated twice (once in the busy and once in the "meager”

time). Among the workers living on the plantation (of whose labor the plantation wishes to assure itself in any event, and, as will appear later, who are almost entirely dependent on the plantation for their income—therewith two guarantees for a Steady job with a regular income) the seasonal variations shall in all probability be less than among the workers who live off the plantation. This latter group often has only very loose ties with the plantation, oftentimes draws much of its income from Sources outside the plantation, and often regards its income from the plantation as extra earnings.

b. Other Sources of Income Insofar as these sources of income are related to agriculture or other forms of enterprise, they could only be judged by the entrepreneurial receipts and expenditures during the period of the investigation. The determination of the value of an enterprise at the beginning and end of the investigation by means of inventories was not done for reasons of time. Also the net incomes from the enterprise would not give a general average for the enterprise because the principal expenditures and receipts may occur at other times. Only an investigation over the period of a year would be able to supply the needed data. Next to apparently high gains (i.e., through sale of the entire rice harvest) there were, during the period of investigation, also large losses (i.e., through purchase of livestock). Income from other sources (i.e., wages from outside the plantation, payment in kind, gifts, etc.) will mostly show a great variability.
2. Difficulties in Determining the Size of the Income
a. Income from Work for the Plantation Usually the wages of supervisors, skilled laborers, factory laborers and regular day laborers among the field laborers are administered separately in the account books of the plantation. Determining these incomes, therefore, was no particular problem. Quite otherwise was the case with the wages of workers who worked for the plantation under contractors, because the plantation keeps no individual wage accounts on them. These contractors agree to do a certain piece of work at a price determined in advance. The determined price, which is paid to the contractor, is indeed in the account books of the plantation, but the exact amount which goes to the contractor and to each person working for him cannot be determined with any certainty. Since the contractors for the most part keep only a very haphazard account ledger and sometimes none at all, the size of the wages could only be determined by comparing the work of the contractor with that of the persons working for him. In practice this procedure ran into grave and sometimes insoluble difficulties. One should keep this in mind when judging the statistics.

b. Other Sources of Income The determination of incomes other than those received from work for the plantation also presented numerous difficulties since much reliance had to be placed on interviews. Then there were incomes Which were not readily disclosed either out of a sense of shame (i.e., income from gambling) or fear (i.e., income from some illegal source). Moreover, income in natural produce or kind (i.e., from own lands, wages or gifts) had to be evaluated at current market prices or by mutual agreement. From the above it will apear very evident how difficult it is for an investigator to definitely establish the income of the families. The income of the families living on the plantation which could be checked by the account books will be fairly accurate. A similar accuracy could not be maintained among the families living off the plantation.
3. The Size of the Income
Table 88 shows the size of the income per plantation of the
various families which were investigated. A condensation of this gives the following picture. THE SIZE OF THE INCOME ProvinceAverageincome perfamily per month in cents Living field labor- erson the plantation fac-superv. & - toryskilled labor-labor-ersersLiving field labor- ersoff the fac- - tory labor-ersplantation superv. & skilled labor- erstanis West Java9891.1641.848739—-970 Central Java-8801.3342.1214767581.734435 East Java8361.1332.4764789131.836746 JAVA8811.1582.3345238291.798677 186975869255 A generally valid conclusion which can be drawn from this table regarding the income of the three types of wage earners and tanis is that the families living on the plantation are somewhat better off than those living off the plantation. One must not attach too absolute a value to these figures since they are in no small measure influenced by chance or circumstances in selecting the representative plantations. For instance, the fact that the West Java families living off the plantation are better off than those of Central and East Java is in no small measure influenced
- ··♦·-’ < ■

by the plantations which were investigated twice. None the less it does appear that the factory laborers who as a group are tied more closely to the plantation (even though they may live off the plantation) clearly have larger incomes than those field workers living off the plantation and who have only loose ties with the plantation. In viewing the income statistics, one must not lose sight of the type of plantation. Even so, the general tendency shown by the statistics seems to be correct.

4. The Composition of the Income Tables 89 through 92 divide the income into eight subdivisions and consider the relative importance with regard to the total income of each division. The following general averages were obtained. THE COMPOSITION OF THE INCOME CompositionAverage income per family per month in cents of the------------------------------------------------------ incomeLiving on the plantation Living off the plantation -------------------------------------------------tanis fieldfac-superv. & fieldfac-superv. & labor-toryskilledlabor-toryskilled erslabor-labor- .erslabor-labor-ersersersers
   Wages from the plantation. ........8081,1171,849
   Wages from off the plantation. ......1121
   Agriculture and Gardening (money)01125
   Animal husbandry....- 1145
   Commercial activities...- 1331
   Other minor vocations....5145
   miscellaneous (gifts, etc.)73137 Payment in kind5130101 Total8811,1582,334 3046401,5727 3423542

25.18- 18234 07720 19201652 7243237 12117414 12287109271 5238291,798677

THE COMPOSITION OF THE INCOME (cont.) CompositionIn % of the total income of the------------------------------------------------------- incomeLiving on the plantation Living off the plantation -------------------------------------------------tanis field fac-superv. & field fac-superv. & “ labor-toryskilledlabor-toryskilled ers labor-labor-erslabor-labor-ersersersers Wages from the planta-
tion.......... 91
Wages from off the plan-
tation......... 1
Agriculture and gardening
(money)........ 0
Animal
husbandry....0
Commercial activities...0 96 79 5877 87 34 3 8 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 5 2 1 5 0 4 1 0 1 Other minor
vocations.... 10
2 2 6 13 Miscellaneous (gifts, etc.). 10 2 214 6 Payment
in kind...... 63
2310 640
Total........ 100100100
100 100 100 100 4 Of the three types of wage earner families living on the plantation, the field and factory laborers were dependent for practically their entire income on the plantation. Except for their income from wages, which accounted for more than 90% of the total, only the income from payments in kind (including wages and gifts in kind which were consummated during the investigation, see Tables 89 through 92 for details), which were almost always derived from plantation lands (primarily wool and products from the garden plot), were of any significance. In the group of supervisors and skilled laborers living on the plantation, however, the wages from the plantation account for only about 80% of the income. From

Table 91 it appears that this low average must be attributed to

families who were living on the East Java tobacco plantations which had been investigated. During the second investigation of

these plantations which occurred during the harvest time, these families had very large incomes in the "agriculture" category through the sale of tobacco leaf to the plantation. This tobacco leaf was partly acquired from owned or rented lands which had been let out to acquaintances or family members for exploitation. Furthermore, during the time of the investigation, one of the supervisors* families received a gift of FI. 120.00 which accounts for about two-thirds of the income of this group from "miscellaneous" sources (i.e., gifts and sale of sterns not included in earlier classifications). If we exclude these families who profit from these "extras" during the harvest period, then it appears that the supervisors and skilled laborers living on the plantation are also dependent on the plantation for about 90% of their income. It can in general be said, therefore, that the wage earner families living on the plantation are dependent upon the plantation for their income. This also applies in large extent to the supervisors and skilled laborers living off the plantation. However, for the field and factory laborers living off the plantation this is no longer the case. Although even here the wages received from the plantation form the principal source of income (58% of total income among field laborers and 77% among factory laborers), the additional sources of income are not without significance. This is seen most strongly in the timber and sugar enterprises where the earnings from the plantation account for only 42 and 44 percent of the total income respectively. · It must also be remembered that investigation tended to concentrate on families which had at least one or more members working for the plantation. Families in which this was not true (i.e., most of the factory laborers’ families after the processing period had ended) were eliminated from the iavea^i- gation beforehand. Therefore, the share of the wage income in the total income for the field and factory laborers living off the plantation will probably be even less than the figures here given indicate. The income from payment in kind also ranks second for the families living off the plantation. It is of relatively more significance, however, (especially among the field laborers) than in the cases of families living on the plantation. With the exception of the income from wages from off the plantation which may sometimes run into sizable amounts in the tea plantation areas, the remaining sources of income (from "agriculture and gardening," "commercial activities,” and "other minor vocations" among the field and factory workers, and "miscellaneous" among the supervisors and skilled laborers) are of significance only on the sugar plantations. From Table 90 it appears that the low incomes of the factory laborers of the sugar plantations which were investigated after the processing period had ended, can be attributed almost entirely to the reduced wage income from the plantation. These reduced incomes are due in large part, as we shall see presently in Chapter V, to a lack of employment opportunity. Therefore at the end of the processing period most of the factory laborers were discharged, while the few remaining worked at half time. To a somewhat lesser degree the same holds true for the skilled laborers out of the group "supervisors and skilled laborers." However, the field supervisors of this group are the ones most likely to work through the entire year, but with fluctuating income.

Tables 93 through 95 give the size of the wage income in the family. A percentagewise summary of the size is given below. THE WAGE INCOME IN THE FAMILY Member(s) of the familyPercentage of the wage income of the family expressed in % of the total wage income of the family Living on the plantationLiving off the plantation field labor- ersfac- - tory laborerssuperv. skilled laborers& field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. & skilled laborers Male head of family.. 607186708694
Female head of family or wife of the head of family ..... 282181280
Children9631324 Other members of the family...333531 Total100100100100100100 In the above table the percentage of the wage income of the male family head among field laborers living off the plantation is somewhat too high because the composite family labor was included in it (see note at bottom of Table 93). The share of the male head of the family in the total wage income is from 8 to 15% smaller among the families living on the plantation because the wife of the family head has a relatively larger income than among similar types of families living off the plantation. In both types of families the share of the male family head increases sharply as the total family income increases (in the sequence field laborers, factory laborers, and supervisors and skilled laborers). The wage income of the family heads and their wives together accounts for from 80 to 90% of the total wage income among field laborers and from 90 to 95% among factory laborers and supervisors and skilled laborers. The wage income of children forms a fairly important item in the field laborer group. The chief source of income for the tani families is the land. The income from ’’agriculture and gardening, ♦’ ’’animal husbandry" and "payments in kind," the last of which can be viewed almost entirely as income from land ownership (excluding only the amounts consumed from personal supplies which are maintained from wages in

kind for harvesting, gifts in natural produce, etc.), form about 75% of the total income among the tani families. In addition the income from "wage services," "commercial activities" and "other minor vocations" (for example, weaving)-the latter two are of relatively more significance in Central and especially East Java than in West Java-must be mentioned. A comparison of the income from owned land (income from "agriculture and gardening" and "payments in kind") of the tani families With the wage earner families living off the plantation shows that there is a close relationship between the size of the owned land, the amount of land tax, and the size of the income from the land. Owning five times as much land and paying four times as much land tax, the tani families’ income from land ownership is four to five times as large as that of the three types of wage earner families which were investigated. 5» The Size and Distribution of the Intome and Consumption Expenditure'

Table 96 gives a comparative appraisal of the size of the

income and consumption expenditure (1) of the various types of families on the various plantations which were investigated. THE SIZE OF THE INCOME AND CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE Per family per month in cents Living on theLiving off the plantationplantation ------------------------------------------------ tanis field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. &. fieldfactory laborerssuperv. & skilled laborers skilled labor-erslabor- ers Income881115823345238291798677 Consumption expenditure883104816975497621612666 The income and consumption expenditure among the field laborers and tanis is practically in balance. Among the factory laborers and supervisors and skilled laborers living off the plantation the income is about 10% higher, while among the supervisors and skilled laborers living on the plantation it is about 40% above consumption expenditures. This indicates that saving can only occur in the higher income brackets. The income of the factory laborers living off the plantation is probably on the high side since many more families were investigated on the sugar plantations

(1) The value of the consumption expenditure was established by converting all articles consumed during the period of investigation into money value.

during the harvesting and processing period—a good period for the factory laborers as previously pointed out, see page 49—than during the other periods. In addition the factory only operated four months out of the year on the sugar plantations which were investigated. Graphs 11 through 17 compare incomes with consumption expenditures for the families which were investigated. If the income equalled consumption expenditures in all families the graph’s line would be straight and starting at the zero point would run at a 45 degree angle to the two axes of the graph. If the income is greater than the consumption expenditure the points will fall above this line, while if the opposite is true they will fall below the line. From the graphs it appears that sometimes the income for certain types of families is larger than expenditures and sometimes it is smaller. Most of the plotted points for the field laborers and tanis fell below the line while most of those of the factory laborers and supervisors and skilled laborers lay above the line. Only in the case of the tajni families can conclusions be drawn which are not too apparent irom the general averages which resulted in almost as many points laying above as below the line for this group. This resulted from certain tani families having exception- ally high incomes during the period of investigation. All graphs also clearly indicate that among those families whose income is about equal to expenditures, the income and consumption expenditure of a family will often vary remarkably in size. In addition it is noted that there is no increased urge to save as the income increases. The reasons why the monthly incomes determined by this investigation may vary appreciably from the normal monthly income have already been discussed at the beginning of this chapter. Although not in the same degree, the consumption expenditures will also be subject to fluctuation in the course of the year. The distribution of income and coifibiaption expenditures among the families which were investigated is given in Tables 97 and 98; several percentages have been summarized in the following table.
.........Table on page 53.
In all types of families the distribution of the income is somewhat greater than that of the consumption expenditure. This points to the previously mentioned assumption that the income is more irregularly spread over the year than the consumption expenditure. In an absolute sense, the income and consumption expenditure among the group of supervisors and skilled laborers shows the greatest distribution.

B. The Cash Situation
1. The Significance of the Cash Situation A summary of the cash situation gives some idea of the money fluctuations during the period of the investigation. As such it rounds out our insight into the manner of life of the families which were investigated. Income and consumption expenditure figures

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE INCOME AND CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURES 011548004450 Division of the income and Consumption expenditures into classes (in guilders) Number of families per class in % of the total number of families 0<0... -5... 5- 10... 10- 15... 15- 20... 20- 25... >25...
total........
In c o hi e Living on the plantationLiving off the plantation fieldfac-superv.& fieldf ac-superv.& labor-- toryskilledlabor-- toryskilled erslabor-erslabor- erserslabor- erslabor- ers 012 11——5216250 5441938602031 3141168172911 4162415143 —124—3142 -127--202 100100100100100100100 Consumption Expenditure Living on theLiving off the plantationplantation -------------------.----------------------------tanis field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. & fieldfactory laborerssuperv. & skilled laborers skilled labor-erslabor- ers <0.—— 0-5.’ ' ’ * ’ 6——4718137
5-10......67501248662249
10 - 15......2445333113810
15 - 20...... 233115143 20 - 25...... 121201111 > 25..... .-13--150
Total........ 100100100100100100100
are not sufficient in themselves. In the first place they give only the net result of enterprises undertaken by the family under investigation during the given period; secondly they make no allowance for debt questions which can be of great significance to the wage earner families who tend to acquire their consumption items on credit. Furthermore the monetary receipts and expenditures form an important control item, even though the cash on hand could not be determined at the beginning of the investigation. In general

it takes several days before the families to be investigated lose their suspicion toward the investigator who visits them daily. If one should begin by asking about the money they have on hand it would raise thoughts of fiscal control and would have an insalubri- ous influence upon the investigation. The advantage that would accrue from knowing the amount of these cash reserves, which are usually trivial, would not be commensurate with the disadvantage which would result from inquiry into this matter. Suffice it to say that from the fact that many families spent money before they received any during the period of investigation and quite often spent more than they received, it must be concluded that as a general rule some money is kept in the home.

2. The Monetary Receipts In Tables 99 through 102 the monetary receipts are divided into seven categories. The relative importance of each category in the total monetary receipts was considered. A summary of the general averages follows. COMPOSITION OF THE MONETARY RECEIPTS Composition of the monetary receipts Average monetary receipts per family per month in cents Living on the plantation Living off the plantation -------------------------------------------------tanis fieldfac-superv.&fieldfac-superv.& labor-toryskilledlabor-toryskilled erslabor-labor-erslabor-labor-ersersersers Wages from the plantation 8141117185430664015727 Wages from off the plantation11213423542 Agriculture and gardening (money)21287463518279
   Animal husbandry....12821192943
   Commercial activities...31832399950109
   Other minor vocations....51459343341
   Miscellaneous4626335648129589
   Total........882116826365099222003610

COMPOSITION OF THE MONETARY RECEIPTS (cont.) Composition of the monetaryL receiptsIn % of the total monetary receipts iving field labor- erson the f ac- - tory labor-ersplantation superv. & skilled-laborersLiving field labor- ersoff the plantation tanis fac-superv. & toryskilled labor-labor-ersers
Wages from the plantation. ........9296706069791
Wages from off the plantation. ......1007207
Agriculture and gardening (money)001194146
Animal husbandry....0032117
Commercial activities...021811218
Other minor vocations....10Ir 22427
Miscellaneous52131391515
Total........100100100100100100100
As a rule the plantation is the great source of money for the wage earner families living on as well as off the plantation. For certain types of plantations (timber and sugar) this is not true. It must be noted here that withholdings of part of the wages in repayment of advances (rice, etc.) made in interim periods have not been deducted from the wages here, but were listed as debt amortization under the monetary expenditures. The fact that the wages received are slightly higher in certain groups than the income from wages is due to the fact that the income from wages has been reduced for those groups by the amount they spend for assistants (among tappers and skilled laborers) and tools (tapping knives, picking cloths, etc.) which form an essential part of their work for the plantation. Of the remaining sources of monetary receipts those of a miscellaneous nature must be mentioned first. This item consists mostly of loans which except in the case of the supervisors and skilled laborers is of greater importance for the families living off the plantation than those living on it. Mention has already been made on page 49 of the sizeable receipts of the supervisors and skilled laborers living on the plantation from

"agriculture and gardening." Further the receipts of the field laborers living off the plantation for "wages from off the plantation," "agriculture and gardening" and "commercial activities," and of the factory laborers living off the plantation for "commercial activities," each account for more than 5% of the total monetary receipts. The receipts from commercial activity given here are too low because only the net gain could be determined since the families did not remember the net receipts and net expenditures. Among the tani families over half the receipts are derived from the land. Next to that chiefly the receipts from "commercial activities" and "miscellaneous" are of importance.

3. The Monetary Expenditures In Tables 103 through 106 the monetary expenditures are divided into seven categories. The relative importance of each category in the total monetary expenditures was considered. A summary of the general averages follows. COMPOSITION OF THE MONETARY EXPENDITURES Composition Average monetary expenditures per family per month in of thecents monetary----------------------------------------------------- expendituresLiving on theLiving off the plantationplantation field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. skilled laborers& field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. skilled laborers—tanis & Consumption..267378910215319909341 Debt amortization.538664100518434375965 Agriculture and gardening2116221173640
   Animal husbandry....213851174
   Commercial activities...415120793357
   Other minor vocations....——121024
   Miscellaneous7710313261 Total820106622204507721762510

COMPOSITION OF THE MONETARY EXPENDITURES (cont.) 621721808213 CompositionIn % of the total monetary expenditures of the---------------------------------------------- monetaryLiving on theLiving off the expendituresplantationplantation field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv.& skilled laborersfield labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv.& skilled laborers Consumption..33354148415267 Debt amortization.66624541454313 Agriculture and gardening0075228
Animal husbandry....0021011
Commercial activities...010410211
Other minor vocations....——00101
Miscellaneous115100
Total........100100100100100100100
The expenditures for consumption and debt amortization together form more than 85% of the total expenditures for all six groups of wage earner families which were investigated. While the expenditures for debt amortization are of greater importance than consumption among the families living on the plantation ' (especially the field and factory laborers), the consumption expenditures are usually somewhat larger among the wage earner families living off the plantation. Over and above expenditures for ’Consumption’ and ’’debt amortization,” only the group of. supervisors and skilled laborers living on the plantation had expenditures of any note; namely for"agriculture and gardening” (this was primarily due to the family previously mentioned which received a gift of FI. 120 and bought a house with a piece of land for FI. 150) and ’’miscellaneous (due principally to the theft of FI. 116.25 from a secretary of one of the timber reserves). Of the monetary expenditures of the wage earner families living off the plantation those of field laborers for "agriculture and gardening" and "commercial activities" and those of the factory laborers for "commercial activities" should be mentioned. Expenditures for "consumption* and’Uebt amortization" together account for 80% of the total expenditures among tanis. Here the expenditures

for "consumption” are about five times as large as those for‘'debt amortization?’ In addition, only the expenditures for "agriculture and gardening" and "commercial activity" are of significance for this group. From Tables 103 through 106 it further appears that "debt amortization" (therefore in all probability also lending activity) plays a relatively much greater role in West Java than in Central and East Java.

4. The Size of the Monetary Variance
   Table 107 gives a comparative summary of the size of the
   monetary receipts and monetary expenditures of the various types of families which were investigated. A summary of the general averages follows. THE SIZE OF THE MONETARY VARIANCE Per family per month in cents Living ontheLiving off' the plantationplantation tanis fieldf ac-superv.<& fieldf ac-superv.& labor-- toryskilledlabor-- toryskilled erslabor-labor-erslabor-labor-ersersersers Monetary receipts 882116826365099222003610 Monetary expenditures. 820106622204507721980510 In a manner similar to what was done with the income and consumption expenditures, the monetary receipts and expenditures were plotted on graphs (Graphs 18 through 24). These graphs show that among the tanis receipts and expenditures are balanced. The larger monetary receipts are almost entirely the result of the abnormally high monetary receipts of a few families (the same ones as in the case of income; due mainly to sale of harvested rice, soya beans or tobacco, sale of large livestock, and a few instances of very high receipts from commercial activities). In the groups of investigated wage earner families the monetary receipts are mostly (for 60 to 80%) somewhat larger than the monetary expenditures. The plotted points of the monetary receipts and expenditures form a wide band which runs parallel to and mostly above the line drawn at a 45 degree angle from the zero point of the two axes of the graph. Even the statistics for the individual plantations which usually show somewhat larger monetary receipts for the wage earner families point to the same result. An indication that the amounts for debt amortization and loans was not always given accurately is shown by the fact that both were smaller during the period of investigation than for those listed as recently acquired. Finally, just as in the case of the income and consumption expenditures, the distribution of the monetary receipts and expenditures was plotted (Tables 108 and 109), a summary of which follows.

DISTRIBUTION OF MONETARY RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES Division ofNumber of families per class in % of the the monetarytotal number of families receipts and ----------------------------------------------------- monetaryMonetary receipts expenditures ----------------------------------------------------- into classesLiving on theLiving off the (in guilders)plantationplantationtanis fieldf ac-superv.&fieldfac-superv.& labor-toryskilledlabor-- toryskilled erslabor-labor-erslabor-labor-ersersersers 0-5166116263 5-105040928591522 10 - 15273918815257 15 - 207191928203 20 - 25012203111 over 2501320-273
total....... 100100100100100100100
Monetaryexpenditures 0-519416724667 5-1052481625601823 10 - 1524332369286 15 - 203132214182 20 - 25111201110 over 25-126-1202
total....... 100100100100100100100
There is a great distribution of monetary receipts and expenditures in all types of families. The distribution is greatest in an absolute sense among the supervisors and skilled laborers.

5. The Changes in the Financial Position Tables 110 through 113 give a summary for each plantation of the financial alterations which occurred in the investigated families during the period of the investigation. A summary of the general averages gives the following picture.
   .........Table on page 60.
   Increase or decrease of debt was figured by subtracting the amounts spent for debt amortization and granted in loans from amounts for (a) articles bought on credit, (b) newly contracted debts by borrowing and (c) payments received on outstanding loans. As already pointed out in the preceding paragraph, the cash on hand at the end of the investigation was larger for each family

THE CHANGES IN THE FINANCIAL POSITION Place of domicileType of familyAverage per family during the period of investigation in cents cash on handdebtstotal in- creasede-increase creasede- creaseimprove- decline ment Living on the plantationfield laborers61654 factory laborers102- -3105- superv.& skilled laborers415170585 Living off the plantationfield laborers599334 factory laborers15094-56- superv.& skilled laborers241102139 tanis10054-46- than at the beginningof theinvestigationThisis countered, however, by the conclusions which can be drawn from the above table; namely that the debts increased during the same period. As a result the financial position of both groups of field laborer families was worse and that of the remaining family groups was better at the end than at the beginning of the investigation. Tables 110 through 113 show that the financial improvement was of significance only among both groups of supervisors and skilled laborers and among the factory laborers living on the plantation. Among the remaining types of families the percentage of plantations on which their financial position improved or declined is between 40 and 60 respectively.

V. WQRK AND WAGES
A. The Work on the Plantation
1.The Importance of the Number of Work Days and Work Hours The number of days and hours that the laborers work on the plantation within a given period is of significance in numerous respects;
1.from a social point of view,
2.for the degree of dependence upon the plantation (partly in view of the time available for work elsewhere),
3.for figuring daily and hourly earnings,
4.for judging the food consumption data. In addition it is the weight of the work which demands oqp particular attention. The weight of the work is determined by:
a.duration of the work,
b.type of work,
c.speed at which work is done,
d.working conditions. In so far as the work on the plantation is concerned, a sufficiency of accurate enough data can be obtained for the dpra- tion of work and type of work of the plantation laborers. This was not always possible for work done off the plantation, especially as concerns work done within the home for which the length of time could often not be given. Due to the inadequacy of the data obtained about work off the plantation this subject had to be removed from consideration. There was no time for holding a detailed investigation for cPnverting piece work into time work. Regarding the speed at which work is done both on and off the plantation, as much data as possible were assembled about the size of the work tasks (i.e., the number of rubber trees that can be tapped within a given time), so that by dividing the wages for a given piece of work by the earnings some insight into this matter might be obtained Actually it was not possible to determine the expenditure of energy in an exact manner, because the manner of work (i.e., carelessly or not carelessly) and circumstances of work ^i.e., amount of experi- ence, nature of the ground and terrain, weather, etc.) were not known. For the same reason it was not possible to determine with exactitude the relation between work and nutrition which is so important for determining nutritional standards.
2.The Size of the Number of Work Days and Work Hours
a. Work within the Family Tables 114 through 122 investigate the work of the members of the family on the plantation. A summary of the general averages of this is given below.

WORK WITHIN THE FAMILY Members of the familyAveragenumber iof workdays perfamilyper month Living on the plantationLiving off the plantation field labor- ersfac- tory laborerssuperv. skilled laborers& field Ilabor- ersfac- - tory laborerssuperv.& skilled-laborers Male head of family 242626152226
Female head of family or wife of head of family.... .15166420
Children.........744514
Other family members224211
Total............. .484840262631
Averagenumberof work; hours per family per month Male head of family 205265282114243281
Female head of family or wife of head of family..... 1231495833301
Children.......... .553435471449
Other family members............ 161547131411
Total.. 399463422207301342 Average number of hoursworked for eachday of work Male head of family9101181111 Female head of family or wife of head of family...8997116
Children.........89981011
Other family members..........991181010
Total............« <, 8101081111

From the above figures it seems that the members of the wage earner families who are living on the plantation appear more often as laborers on the plantation (field and factory laborers almost 50, supervisors and skilled laborers almost 40 days per family per month) than do the members of the wage earner families living off the plantation (average of 25 to 30 days per family per month). Since the field laborer families spent less time each day working for the plantation (average of 8 hours per day) than did the factory laborers, supervisors and skilled laborers, the total working time per: family during the period of investigation was less for the first mentioned family group (especially for those living off the plantation) than for the others. It is further to be noted that the relative importance of the work time of the male head of the family within the total work time for the family is smaller (51 to 67%) for families living on the plantation than for those living off the plantation (55 to 82%). His share increases in the various types of families in the following sequence: field laborers, factory laborers, and supervisors and skilled laborers. In both instances these differences may be in large measure attrib uted to the differences in work time for the wife of the head of the family. Tables 114 through 122 show that the hours of work on the West Java plantations are lefes than in Central and East Java.

b. The Work of the Men and Women within the Laboring Age In order to gain an insight into the level of the daily and hourly earnings it will be necessary in the first place to investigate the wages of those persons who both mentally and physically can be regarded as mature laborers. As pointed out on page 16, the years from 16 through 60 were adopted as the laboring age.
Table 123 contains the average number of work days and hours per
person during the period of investigation for the men and women of this group. The general averages obtained are given below. THE WORK OF THE MEN AND WOMEN WITHIN THE LABORING AGE Average number of work days per person per month Living on the plantationLivingoff the plantation fieldfactory superv.&fieldfactory superv.& laborers laborers skilledlaborers laborers skilled laborerslaborers men,..β β « e252627192426 women..e„232322202325 a)
a) This figure refers to only one person.

THE WORK WITHIN THE FAMILY (cont.) Average number of work hours per person per month Living on the plantationLivingoff the plantation fieldfactory superv.&fieldfactory superv.& laborers laborers skilledlaborers laborers skilled laborerslaborers men.... .213260287146277278 women...185212197147236150 a) Averagenumberof work hours perperson perday Living on the plantationLivingoff the plantation fieldfactorysuperv.&fieldfactdrysuperv.& laborerslaborersskilled laborerslaborers laborersskilled laborers men.... „8.610.010.87.611.510.7 women...8.09.19.07.210.36.0 a)

a) This figure refers to only one person. The above figures have reference only to the wage earners of the 16 to 60 year age group who are considered in good working condition; this means about 80% of the men and 30% of the women of the total age group. Moreover, persons who worked in a family group oi5 for whom there were no exact statistics are not included (see note at the end of Table 123). With the exception of the male wage earners from the group of field laborers living both on and off the plantation, the male wage earners living both on and off the plantation work for the plantation on about 85% of the available days. For the female wage earners this figure runs about 70%. The lower percentage (about 60) for the field laborers living off the plantation is entirely due to the Central and East Javanese rubber, sugar, and timber enterprises which were investigated. In all other instances the labor intensity of the male wage earners, in so far as it concerns the results of the work, must be called high. Actually this amounts to one free day per week, but then no account has been taken of forced days of rest because of illness or for other reasons From the above table we can also see that the average number of working hours per working day is less for the field laborers than for the factory laborers, supervisors and skilled laborers. Also men work somewhat longer than women at the same type of work. From the individual plantation statistics (the general averages say nothing on this matter) it cannot be determined whether the wage earners living on the plantation work any longer than those who come from outside the plantation. It can be mentioned-here that the

work times which have been established for day laborers (koelie hari) are usually longer than the times which piece laborers are accustomed to work. Finally Table 123 also shows us that the few factory laborers who are employed on the sugar plantations in off season cannot find enough work there. A division of the men and women in good working condition into various age categories in order to determine the influence of age upon the size of the daily and hourly earnings was not done because with regard to the separate plantation the numbers were not large enough (there were oftentimes only individual persons doing the same type of work) and with regard to the general averages the differences between wages and other matters among the plantations would have proved too confusing.

c. The Work Involved in Some of the Leading Tasks In view of the possibility of making comparisons with the wage statistics concerning certain categories of laborers in the most important types of plantations on Java which have been assembled since October 1936, the work involved in various of the leading tasks was investigated. Tables 124 through 132 give the results of this investigation. A summary of the percentile significance of these tasks within the total amount of labor is given in the following table.
.........Table on page 66
Indeed the above figures give no indication of the actual importance of the selected tasks in the total amount of labor on the plantations. Therefore in the choice of families to be investigated more account had to be taken of the differences in occupation than of the number of persons belonging to each occupational category. The percentages for harvesting and tapping are too high because these tasks were specifically included in the investigation. On the other hand the preparation is of more importance among the factory tasks than the above chart would indicate. From the above we can also see that the men and women working on plantations are often involved in more than one task. For instance on the tea plantations which were investigated, only women did the picking while other tasks such as trimming, grafting, and trench digging were only done by men. In the factory women are encountered only at the sorting task while men do the preparation and other factory tasks. Naturally the division of the work to be done is determined by adaptability, physical capacity, economic factors (female labor is often cheaper) and other factors (i.e., i)oes the labor reserve of a particular plantation have an influence on the division of the available workers?). Tables 124 through 142 also take account of the age of the workers engaged in the various tasks. A summary of this is given in the table on page 67.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE WORK INVOLVED IN SOME OF THE LEADING TASKS Number of working hours spent on the task listed below in % of the total number of Type ofwdrking hours within each particular labor plantationcategory and within the 16-61 year age group. field tasks harvest- trim- graft- tap- trenchother total ingmi ngingpingdiggingfield tasks
men.... tea coffee rubber tobacco sugar........ timber4411 129542389 44 37 100 77 100100 100 100 100 100 100
women..tea..........84,rr.16100
coffee.......93————7100
rubber——61—39100
tobacco......—————100100
sugar———.—100100
timber.......——100100
supervisors’ and skilled laborers’ tasks factory tasks prepa- sort- othertotalsuper- visors ’ tasksskilled total laborers ’ tasks ration ingfac- tory tasks
men....tea...........1001004852100
coffee’ i 393591006733100
rubber....... 28—721007228100
tobacco....o100100100100
sugar....... .29711003565100
timber—1001008713100 women..tea3907100100100 coffee... ..2962100100100
rubber.....92368100
tobacco....5050100100-c100
sugar’ ’67—33100—-— timber—————

THE WORK AT VARIOUS AGES Number of hours of work in the age groups listed below in % of the total number of hours of work. Age ----------------------------------------------------------- field tasks factory tasks supervisory and skilled labor tasks menwomenmenwomenbtenwomen under 1248110 12 - 1669190— 16 - 618983988999100 above 600----- Fromthe abovetable itappearsthat childlabor(below 12 years) is practically limited to field tasks. Children are mostly used to assist in the harvesting (coffee), tapping, weeding, and combating sicknesses and plagues. Adolescent labor (12 - 16 years) is also of some significance in factory tasks, especially as concerns women. In general it seems that there are more young people among the female workers than among the male. Finally it can be seen that workers above sixty years of age occur very rarely on the plantation.

B. The Wages from the Plantation
1. The Importance of the Daily and Hourly Earnings In the preceding chapter something has already been said about the importance of the wage earnings from the plantation within the entire income. The size of the wage income within the family was considered there. Wages from the plantation are considered to be the amount which has been received from the plantation during the time of investigation, minus the income tax and the so-called professional expenses; these are wages to assistants (especially in tapping), tapping knives, hones, picking clothsa etc., all things which are necessary for the wage earner to conduct his call- ing. Sometimes the plantation withheld the income tax from the wages and sometimes it did not. For purposes of comparison, the income tax has been deducted from all wages given here. From the total wage attained in this manner the daily and hourly earnings were figured by dividing by the number of days and hours respectively that was worked during the period of investigation. The number of days that each worker turned out on the plantation was a known quantify. The number of hours worked could be easily determined for those laborers hired on an hourly basis. But the number of hours worked by the persons on piece worl^ could only be determined by counting (in addition to personally asking the worker, the assistance of the supervisors involved was also used) and question- ing.

In order to determine the level of the wages it was necessary to figure both the daily and hourly earnings since as we have seen above the number of hours worked per day may vary markedly on one plantation. Although in general the work capacity per hour will decline in direct proportion to the number or hours worked, it can with much certainty be accepted that the hourly earnings form a better basis for comparison than the daily earnings. It must there fore also be regarded as desirable that work analyses are made for various tasks which will eventually be able to give a deeper insight into this material.

2. The Size of the D|aily and Hourly Earnings
   a. The Daily and Hourly Earnings of the Men and Women within the Laboring Age
   Table 133 gives a summary of the average daily and hourly
   earnings of men and women from 16 to 60 years in the wage earner families which were investigated. A listing of the general averages is given below. THE DAILY AND HOURLY EARNINGS OF THE MEN AND WOMEN WITHIN THE LABORING AGE Province:Average daily earnings per person in cents Living on plantationLiving off plantation field laborersfactory laborerssuper v. & skilled laborersfield laborersfactory laborerssuperv.& skilled laborers Men West Java Central21314919--
   Java..... East21346992047
   Java202955123058 JAVA203054132453 Women West Java16151614 Central Java East15203781610 a) Java141422721- JAVA151521101810 a)

a) This figure refers to only one person.

THE DAILY AND HOURLY EARNINGS OF THE MEN AND WOMEN WITHIN THE LABORING AGE (cont.) Average hourly earning per person in cents Province:Living on plantationLiving off plantation field laborersfactory laborerssuperv.& skilled laborersfield laborersfactory laborerssuperv.& skilled laborers Men West Java Central.3.33.35.52.9——
Java..... East. 2.23.37.01.21.84.5
Java..., .. 2.12.84.81.52.44.7
JAVA..... Women.2.33.05.11.72,04.6
West Java..... Central.2.51.92.32.1——
Java..... East. 1.62.03.71.11.61.7 a)
Java...... 1.61.42.20.91.9-
JAVA...... 1.81.52.31.31.81.7 a)

a) This figure refers to only one person. From the above table it appears that the average daily and hourly earnings of the wage earners living on the plantation, especially in Central and East Java are higher than those of the wage earners living off the plantation. This is a consequence of the low earnings on those plantations in these provinces which work exculsively with personnel living off the plantation. In those instances where personnel were also housed in plantation living areas, the earnings of working personnel from off the plantation seemed to be immediately higher. The differences in hourly earnings between wage earners living on and off the plantation, in so far as they belong to the same group and are employed by the same plantation, are a consequence of the type of work and the work ability, and are not to be ascribed to wage politics. The table also shows that among the lowest paid group of wage earners—the field laborers—the men earned almost 1.5 times as much per day and per hour as the Women. This is true for groups living both on and off the plantation. In the higher paid groups—

the factory laborers, supervisors and skilled laborers—this difference is relatively much larger. As a rule the wages of women who work in the factories are only slightly or not at all higher than those who work in the fields, and the groups of female supervisors (female skilled laborers were not encountered on the plantations which were investigated) is quantitatively insignificant. Among the men the averagd daily ajfid hourly earnings of the factory laborers are about 1.5 times as high as those of the field laborers, and those of the supervisors and skilled laborers two to four times as high as the field laborers. The circumstance that the plantations situated in the more thinly populated districts (i.e., the tea and coffee plantations) had to make arrangements for housing and feeding, and at the same time had to pay higher wages (about twice as high) in order to maintain a fixed nucleus of working personnel, brings up the question of the degree to which supply and demand and physical working ability lay at the root of this. It cannot as yet be determined in how far the physical working ability had any correlation with the level of the wages, for there are too many differential factors which influence this. The specific tasks associated with each type of plantation as well as the conditions under which the work is conducted (terrain, climate, etc.) play a significant part in this, so that it is difficult to make comparisons. An investigation into the size of the working ability and into the factors which influence it is therefore a vital necessity for the future. The lower wages on the plantations with a large labor supply might also be the result of a somewhat lesser physical ability. This for example seems to be the case in the sugar factory on the north coast of Central Java where weakening of the body due to mal- nutrition or sickness has been noted. Actually, however, the fact that the best field laborers in the most densely populated districts do not as a rule reach the level of the average wage which is paid to the same type of worker on the remote plantations, points to supply and demand having a great influence on the wage level. Finally it is to be noted that the average daily earnings vary little among the three provinces; the average hourly earnings are somewhat higher in West Java than in Central and East Java.

b. The Daily and Hourly Earnings for Some pf the Leading 'Jasks In Tables 134 through 142 the size of the daily and hourly earnings has been considered for some of the leading tasks. A summary follows in the table below.

THE DAILY AND HOURLY EARNINGS FOR SOME OF THE LEADING TASKS Average daily earning per person in cents for the tasks listed below (age group 16 to 61 years) Type of-------— planta-superv.& tionfield tasksfactory tasks skilled tasks htgttdoftaPso£tassa arraritiaVrotaaVukV riaPegheseerhcsePie VHlfPπg01krPtetkre1r emt±cirdsaairΌsar1a siinhngrnrgVeg tnnggeagyede ig gt ni go n Men tea—19——— i199——3232565355 coffee2317——-192125303431478258 rubber——2620—-1217272626444444 tobacco—————2323—10181864—64 sugar————88827—2425445954 timber-----1313--3434547862 Women tea15————1314813221414—-14 coffee17————14171513Ϊ4133232 rubber———17—81317181415—— tobacco—————88—61591919 sugar-----6624-2022---
........Remainder of table on page 72.
From the above table as well as from the individual plantation statistics it appears that the earnings for field tasks recorded since October 1936 (harvesting of tea and coffee, tapping of rubber, and trench digging on the sugar plantations) are somewhat above the usual level of field laborer earnings. From these statistics it can be deduced that the tea, coffee, and rubber plantations which were investigated by the Goolie Budget Commission belong to the better-paid group of such plantations. Finally the following table gives a brief summary of the daily and hourly earnings for the various age groups (for a more detailed insight one is referred to Tables 134 through 142).
.........Table on page 72.

THE DAILY AND HOURLY EARNINGS FOR SOME OF THE LEADING TASKS (cost.) Average hourly earning per person in cents for the tasks listed below (age group 16 to 61 years) Type of ---------------------------------------------------------- planta-superv.& tionfield tasksfactory tasks skilled tasks h a r V e s t i n gt Γ i m m i n gg r a f t i n gt a P P i n gt r e n c hd i g g i n gOft tia hes elk rdsa V e r a g eP r e P a r a t i o ns 0 r t i n goft tAa hcs etk ros r ya V e r a g es u P e r V

a) Number of work hours not recorded. THE DAILY AND HOURLY EARNINGS AT VARIOUS AGES Average daily earning per Average hourly earning per Ageperson in centsperson in cents fieldfac.sup.&fieldfac.sup.& taskstaskssk.t.taskstaskssk.t. menwo- menmenwo- menmenwo- menmenwo- menmenwo- menmenwo- men 0-127664170.90.71.00.81.9 12-1697121213—1.10.81.41.21.5- 16-611613271456292.01.72.41.55.13.1 over 6031a)-----3.9a)-----
a) This figure refers to only one person who worked only seven days on the plantation during the period of investigation.