Baca PDF (OCR): Overseas Chinese nationalism: the genesis of the Pan-Chinese movement in Indonesia, 1900-1916

Lea E. lams
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Overseas Chinese Nationalism
THE GENESIS 0^ THE PANCHINESE MbVEMENT
IN INDONESIA, 1900-1916
MASJACBUSiiTTS iNSTlTUTB OF TEC^NiOtOGT

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OF FLORIDA
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Overseas Chinese Nationalism

W. W. Rostow, Alfred Levin, and Others, Nor- ton, 1953; Mentor Books, 1954
W. W. Rostow and Others, Technology Press and Wiley, 1954
W. W. Rostow and Richard W. Hatch, Technology Press and Wiley, 1955
M. F. Millikan and W.W. Rostow, Harper, 1957
A. Bauer and and Communications Ithiel de Sola Pool, eds.
C. K. Yang, Technology Press, 1959
C. K.Yang, Technology Press, 1959
W. W. Rostow, Harper, 1960

6
BOOKS FROM THE CENTER
PUBLISHED BY
HANDBOOK FOR INDUSTRY STUDIES
Everett E. Hagen
CHANGING IMAGES OF AMERICA: A Study
of Indian Students' Perceptions
George V. Coelho
THE JAPANESE FACTORY: Aspects of Its So-
cial Organization
James C. Abegglen
INDUSTRIAL CHANGE IN INDIA: Industrial
Growth, Capital Requirements, and
Technological Change, 1937-1955
George Rosen
THE PASSING OF TRADITIONAL SOCIETY: Mod-
ernizing the Middle East
Daniel Lerner, with Lucille W. Pevsner
THE RELIGION IN JAVA ("Modjokuto" Series)
Clifford Geertz
OTHER BOOKS FROM THE CENTER
THE DYNAMICS OF SOVSET SOCIETY
THE PROSPECTS FOR COMMUNIST CHINA
NINE SOVIET PORTRAITS
Raymond A. Bauer and Edward Wasioiek, Tech-
nology Press and Wiley, 1955
AN AMERICAN POLICY IN ASIA
MOSCOW AND THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF
INDIA
John H. Koutsky, Technology Press and Wiley,
1956
A PROPOSAL: Key to an Effective Foreign
Policy
FRANCE DEFEATS EDC
Daniel Lerner and Raymond Aron, eds., Praeger,
1957 (published as LA QUERELLE DE LA C.E.D.,
Armand Colin, 1956)
THE ECONOMICS OF COMMUNIST EASTERN
EUROPE
Nicolas Spulber, Technology Press and Wiley, 1957
SOVIET EDUCATION FOR SCIENCE AND TECH-
NOLOGY
Alexander Korol, Technology Press and Wiley,
1957
INDONESIA'S ECONOMIC STABILIZATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
Benjamin Higgins, Institute of Pacific Relations,
FORGING A NEW SWORD: A Study of the
Department of Defense
William R. Kintner, with Joseph I. Coffey and
Raymond J. Albright, Harper, 1958
FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
THE FREE PRESS
CHINA'S GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT AND SO-
CIAL ACCOUNTS: 1950-1957
William W. Hollister
INDUSTRIAL GROWTH IN SOUTH INDIA: Case
Studies in Economic Development
George B. Baldwin
AMERICAN BUSINESSMEN AND INTERNATIONAL
TRADE: Code Book and Data from a Study
on
Raymond
Attitudes
OVERSEAS CHINESE NATIONALISM: The Gen-
esis of the Pan-Chinese Movement in
Indonesia
Lea E. Williams
, 1 900-1 91
FINANCING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: The
Indonesian
Douglas S.
Case
Paauw
FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
SCRATCHES ON OUR MINDS: American Im-
ages of China and India
Harold R. Isaacs, John Day, 1958
THE INFLATIONARY SPIRAL: The Experience
in China, 1939-1950
Chang Kia-Ngou, Technology Press and Wiley,
1958
THE AMERICAN STYLE: Essays in Value and
Performance
Elting E. Morison, ed., Harper, 1958
ALLOCATION IN SPACE: Production, Trans-
port and Industrial Location
Louis Lefeber, North-Holland, 1958
JAPANESE POPULAR CULTURE: Studies in Mass
Communication and Cultural Change
Hidetoshi Koto, ed. and trans., Tuttle, 1959
THE HUMAN MEANING OF THE SOCIAL
SCIENCES
Daniel Lerner, ed., Meridian Books, 1959
A CHINESE VILLAGE IN EARLY COMMUNIST
TRANSITION
THE CHINESE FAMILY IN THE COMMUNIST REV-
OLUTION
BLOC POLITICS IN THE UNITED NATIONS
Thomas Hovet, Jr., Harvard, 1 9S0
THE STRUCTURE OF THE EAST GERMAN ECONOMY
Wolfgang F. Stolper, Harvard, 1960
POSTWAR
STATES
ECONOMIC TRENDS IN THE UNITED
Ralph E. Freeman, ed.. Harper, 1960
THE UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD ARENA
THE QUESTION OF GOVERNMENT SPENDING:
Public Needs and Private Wonts
Francis M. Bator, Harper, 1960

The Center for International Studies
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Overseas Chinese Nationalism
THE GENESIS OF THE PAN-CHINESE MOVEMENT
IN INDONESIA, 1900-1916
hy Lea E. Williams
The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois

Copyright ©
in
Library Number: 60-9582

To my mother
who from earliest memory taught me of
faraway peoples, places, and times.

CONTENTS
PREFACE ix
ABBREVIATIONS xiii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 3
The Problem 3
Indonesian

The Chinese Position 9
Chinese
The Chinese as a
Notes
CHAPTER THE BACKGROUND OF THE NATIONALIST
AWAKENING
The Need
Dutch
Chinese Revenue Farming 24

Major Chinese
Government Chinese
The Chinese and Officialdom
The Chinese and Outside World
Notes 48
CHAPTER 3. THE MOBILIZATION FOR NATIONALISM 54
The

The Movement

11
of

Sic
Associations
Summary
Notes
CHAPTER 4. DEVELOPMENTS IN LEADERSHIP
The

Some Symbols
and
Notes
CHAPTER 5. AN EVALUATION

ment
Notes
GLOSSARY
SOME NETHERLANDS INDIES
SURNAMES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Secondary Works: Books
Secondary Works: Articles
INDEX
1
1 1
113
124
1
1
146
159
163
168
1
1 74
184
1 84
1
Move-
202
205
207
211
21
213
220
231
Application to the Problem of Minority Nationalism
EQUIVALENTS OF KUO-YU

PREFACE

The book was conducted
and
both Genootschap and
its Department, were
Many Raden
Mas Utoyo Kementerian Dalam Negeri
Eng-hua, principal Hoa Hwe Koan
and Beng Goat, Keng
and guidance. The was
graciousness Chin an im-
degree Chinese many years
Confucian Java.
Europe of most of the offi-
documents It was,
major
first two years research and
The Dutch have
East and,
Johanna Felhoen-Kraal
Tropen Tropical

[x]
Amsterdam was more than generous and helpful in introducing the writer
to scholars and officials with special connections with Indonesian studies

W. Brink, and J. Brouwer Nederlandse Zendings-Hogeschool
P. Overzeese Overseas Realm, the former Colonial

and
and Coolhaas and A.
van Marie and Willem van Milaan
Wertheim of the
Amsterdam. and Amster-
dam were. The Duyvendak,
van der Valk, and J. Meulen Uni-
much encouragement and The
who made available and
were E.
Chamber of Commerce Amsterdam much The
and
promoted two good Mr. and Mrs. M. J..
Amsterdam. Two Hague, Koninklijke
and Land-en
Volkenkunde Language, Geography and
were of
Much was based
Dutch government. is due Brouwer
and Algemeen
van van and
Zaken and

Ixi]

Hague, and J. G. F. M. G.
Aigemeen (Subdepot, General
.
names few many and
and
In, CM.
on overseas gave and In
many whom is much indebted.
among
who underwrote
John K. and Douglas
Hedwig who made available
knowledge of methods and and my wife,
whose encouragement and
were as always without Many
Its and
writer.
The names work
changes
and, Chinese names, dialect and
. The accepted spellings
names will
may be references
Bandung, and places
Dutch names, Weltevreden, and Buitenzorg,
manner, names
Whenever Chinese names roman-
Wade-Giles system used
; names, the
Dutch Malay China

IxiiJ

E.

An
is
upon
names
list Wade-Giles
name
Chinese In
meaning
and
an
A list
where
an
employed.
Brown
Rhode
June 1959
list common
end The list is
number of works which Chi-
As
one more
and,
where it is and
names
names when known,
and
end each
and
more one is
which
'

ABBREVIATIONS
Ad. Chin. Chinese Affairs

N.I.
N.I. and
N.I.
N.I.

Ad. Japanese Affairs
Ad. Chin. Japanese and
Neth. Min. Minis-
Neth. Min. O Minis-
Realm Overseas Realm
Gen. N.I. Attorney General(
Generaal Hoog-Gerechtshof)
CHHTC Chung Hwa Chih
Chin. Charg6 Chinese Charge
Chin. Con. Gen. Chinese General
Min. Chinese
Min. Chinese

.,...
[xlv]
DL

G.G.

Isf G<3v. Sec
Gen Sec.

G. Sumatra W. Cst. IG KS

N.I. Off. Chin. Aff. Off. Jap. Aff. Off. Jus. Res. SPJN THHK Temp. Ad. Chin. Aff. Wl
N.I. Government (1 Gouvernements
N.I. General (Algemeene
N.I. Governor General Governor West Gids
935)

Gen.
Col.
For. Aff
De ma
Charge d 'Affaires
General
()
Chinese
Japanese
Jubileum-Nummer
1
Hoa Hwe Koan
Temporary Adviser to the N.1.Gov-
ernment on Chinese Affairs
Weekblad voor Indi'^ (Batavia)

Overseas Chinese Nationalism

.
INTRODUCTION

Exile is
The Problem
Perhaps twelve million Chinese today live and, in many cases,
prosper in Southeast Asia. Estimates on the division of their loyalties
seem almost as numerous as the immigrants themselves. Officials, jour-
nalists, and travelers in the area commonly state that the overseas
Chinese population can be classified as 10 per cent vociferously pro-
Communist, 10 percent rather forlornly pro-Kuomintang, and 80 per
cent cautiously "waiting." Clearly there is no way to evaluate this
guess. Only two observations on the problem seem universally accept-
able: the political attachments of most overseas Chinese are either
concealed or unsettled; and virtually all these people look ultimately
to China as their symbol of national prestige and security. Relatively
few Chinese in Southeast Asia seem inflexibly committed to a cold war
camp; but without significant exception every immigrant is a national-
istic Chinese, a man somehow prepared to give final allegiance to
China
Nationalism is not necessarily rational in economic or political terms.
Countless examples can be put forward to demonstrate this fundamental
point. The people of one newly independent nation may have been bet-
ter off economically under colonialism; perhaps the citizens of another
[3]

[4]

and
dom. The non-Western na-
is Nkrumah's party Ghana:
"We danger
is
prone
Chinese of Southeast Asia workagainst
own It is
communism. The Indonesian-Chinese under-
. is
Manila hard-earned
Kuomintang Communist — even. Na-
can assumed
and and economics.
The outcome men
byacool
communism and democracy. made
is. which
can any con-
The follow new
non-Western The concern
is one
cannot
Yet, is

[5]
beyond those islands,

Dutch sovereignty. From
New Guinea, it
between mainland and 3,100 miles,
somewhat
New Guinea, and The
was neighborhood 735,000 square
Low Germany, and
combined— New
overwhelmingly the is havingan
48,766 square same New York
The Dutch marking
opening was 35 million,
80 on Java and
Madura. Java been
were and are
New Guinea
and The
number
it is to refer to

its,
common name,

[6]

human and If
is any it can
distance— vertical, if you will— between
New Guinea and Javanese is
between any two one The
uneven degrees
the West, and China.
The economy 1900 was upon
and cinchona.
The and was
and was still its The Nether-
its own was
manufactured
an emporium and
merchant
1900 were f. 195 f. 259
The main were
and Within colony was only
. underwent
and some
were
Is concerned which saw Dutch
those
whole The Dutch
were made In

.
[7]
New Guinea.

Java been
4
first The Dutch first come
The permanent
advantages
The which first
was
A
on buy any
seemed and
the coming Western
which, the knew well, on
The
and demanded
European
began was
Company. The company been commercial ven-
was evermore deeply Into gov-
In and management,
company collapsed and its were
in it
is so in its
to it. to
in-
to If
is to to
or

...
[8]

between and Native and
Dutch were
and watch on
machinery government. Native appeared
autonomy, walking
were always and
Dutch. One Dutch government
was that is humane."
maintenance
and
and
were own
Dutch and Chinese and
were accountable headmen
and was, it always
Dutch who acted accordance
Hague.
"
i£." J. S.,
Press, p. this
like is
.
Instltuut in
It
( (,
,
last
to this system will
later

.

It
Dutch gave
convenience,
who
Much its
and A
is have
And same
charming
However, was
"grew an"

Within complex
.
and
was
who cleared
were 1900 well
and Madura
[9]
on
Chinese made
was a Chinese
com-
accuracy and
, and
The Dutch versions
any
have been and was
was
Dutch
Java
"Java
add Dutch
"
."
was at times
In 1740
. Chinese
Semarang,
an opium dealer, grew
Chinese On Java
number,, were

[10]
Outer Is,

Java and Madura. were
Outer percentage immi-
Between 1860 and 1900 Java
1 90,000.
It is Outer
was In volume Java. It
raw do not full magnitude
Outer Many and
accord-
Other and more
evidence Chinese life is
showing 1900
was women men.
Outer were show
16 women men.
Outer Possessions, particularly those of Sumatra's
and Bangka and were immi-
and
The own and
have been two principal
is
Amoy (^y ^)and thus
means new China can be
is less commonly
upon word anak.

.
[11]

which is example, A
Peranakan may may mixed
is always of
While were
because of the employment,
to The 1900
one were
Semarang; and
one and
accounted
It is when first came
They were
came, much
Fa
Java Malaya. The Sung dynasty
saw a advance Chinese and
and
new numbers Chinese Many
Mongol which Java
And Ming, the
Cheng Ho and
beyond. The Ming and
on China appear have emi-
Often
who emigrated when
Manchus came down from North. Nameless cen-
"Mayflower" own

[12]
One West on China

was
waters, it Chinese
. same were
economic development
was needed work and and
crowded villages of
China. was a and
Chinese
Outer. The
some were
many Hakka, Swatownese, and Cantonese
1900 were Fukienese
come Kwangtung.
The common
They were
and, were
Malay-speaking. Occupational rolesalso tended
on basis were
were work wage earners.
Java, where great Chinese were
,some 75,000 men 33,000
were engaged trade, 20,000
worked moneylenders, res-
and Outer
207,000 employed were engaged which
meant that worked on if.

[13]
as Is commonly stated in Java, two-thirds of the Peranakans were of

mixed Chinese and even
new many It was even
it now seems, an astute Dutch
Chinese and do want
Chinese Separateness

While It is and were
Chinese community Chinese
were popu-
The
many
been
undergone more
European Or, employ the words of a Dutch
"... have been
little
..." The
and is,
background, homeland been
Chinese
and were viewed
The Chinese can have been "marked communica-
and have
it is how
many to in
to
Press

[14]
ofan Indonesian was an communication

it remembered
knew one more of
The become assimilated, is,
common channels communication,
was partly
few embraced
.
an achieve
is
was
who were,
Dutch
China
The
come

J. H. New
L. Press,

other,
In other titles
solid to consult
in Politics: A
,
Press, A Its
, New Its
Van In
, New 1946; Institute
, Press,
,New
New

[15]

con-
an extreme
accept or acknowledge accepted
Overseas
China have been deeply imbued view
adopted was on whole
. It is do more
supremacy was pos-
communication with
one maintenance
Chinese communication is
economic The were
They and few
poverty— but also
homes. The Chinese were a
and, if
commercial Western
an example people isolated because
economic and
have very frequently
been Jews of the The communi-
economic Long after
many language adopted
still communicate
was communication between a
and an Often
same language
and

[16]
any significant exchange of ideas. But a Peranokan, who was probably
in commerce, and a Singkeh, who might merely be hopeful of attain-
ing that position, would be better able to communicate with each other
and, accordingly, more likely to do so. The Peranakan and the Singkeh
might experience difficulty in finding a common language, but shared
thoughts would make up for much of the linguistic deficiency. How-
ever, much greatercomplementarity of social communication, of course,
would have served two Peranakans, whose backgrounds, thoughts, and
language were even closer. The possession of common channels of
communication, then, Is in a sense like what is meant when two per-
sons are said to have something In common.

a
may
and who
Its communication. A may
It and growing
dependence upon Its A may
Its chance is acceptance of Its
come. Jews, who modern have been
still away
and
ways were them
. Only
have any number
Negroes, been willing acceptance
American even many Negroes still
"making

[17]

Here the concern is emergence
A
lists members desire
dominant
and
Chinese book came
it is
and
program
adequate and
its own language and its
maintenance
and
museums, media and and educa-
adequate
its language,
and and
language
and
and and and,
degree autonomy.
A people Chinese command eco-
nomic, social, and
They enough numbers make
A people is
adopted However, German
and Czechoslovakia between
situation can when is

.
[18]

on Its The
ago were
Although and make
them is an
A people will, much
campaign if it Is equipment its
task— the nationality. an
its homeland,
equipment may demand
and, since formal education is
and money. With-
move-
ment and may
example Mau
Mau

Many
Once men once many objective
would become aware ofwhat
happened. If new awareness come them
and change, a change
damental them new and
new confidence what were and own —
them a
— new consciousness would
become new and
If hap-
pen widening and
would
weapon, men
them some

[19]

winning And if
become reinforced
and media
communication, economic interest groups, and
agencies— then ap-
pearonthe as dominant.., National-
appeared dominant power, a power
much its own ex-
which
The how, whom,
and what
was
decade and At opening
and were
colony and made and China.
achievement is
movement.
be devoted an
Chinese community
pan-Chinese and
were movement and
be A
consequences awakening may
means of explaining the and movement. In
develop
The
and movement
account

1. in

.
[20]
Notes to Chapter 1

J.
. 5; L.H.W.

Kingdom Neth-
Gebr.
1; S.
,
is
in Many in this
in
Madura,
in all
It is Madura
Madura
,
Two in., in
clear, this
Its
Armand
Ho Kim Yoe,
,.
Zaken
fairs), Andere VreemdeOoster
In Nederlandsch-lndlS
in
Hunne Zuld-Oost AziS, Spe-
Nederlandsch-lndi^
In Development
, Hague,
,
pp. J. J. M.

[21]
Politieke Vereenigingen In de Koloni'^n, meteene Chineesche Geschiedenis

p. De
c.. Human
W. MIT,

van de Kongsi Lanpong (The Kongsi System of BorneO/ a Discourse on the
1 1.,.
De
in L.J.Veen,
De Chineezen in
C in
, New

THE BACKGROUND OF THE NATIONALIST
AWAKENING
commun la fait

les les
lis lis commandent I commun.
The Need for Nationalism
We have noted that the Chinese of Netherlands India were
always quite distinct from the other inhabitants of that colony but that
until this century they were far from united as one community. The
achievement of unity demanded the awakening among all Chinese of
the archipelago of a feeling of membership in a greater Chinese nation.
The split between Peronakons and Singkehs required closing; the divi-
sions separating Cantonese, Hokkas, Swatownese, and Fukienese had
to be abolished. Loyalty to Thian Tee Hwee ( t'ien-ti hui, X. i^^f^)
and to other secret societies, long sources of hostility and even blood-
shed, could no longer be tolerated. These bodies, maintained to pro-
vide mutual help to the members, were clearly "one-sided and served
2
only to protect the interests of the membership." Finally, friction
between the various economic classes of the Chinese had to be lessened.
But why did 1900 and not some other year mark the beginning of intense
efforts to unify the Chinese? It has been said that they were subjected
to new pressures around the turn of the century. This is so, but pres-
sure and worse had been felt many times before without causing any
[221

[23]
significant change in the tactics by which the Chinese sought to safe-
guard their position.
To answer the question of why nationalism or, more correctly, ef-
forts to lay a foundation for nationalism emerged in 1900, it is necessary
to consider the events and circumstances of half a century ago in the
Indies and, briefly, in other parts of Southeast Asia, in China, and, if
it is not too daring, in the world as a whole.
I e

The
1600-1800, Company; 1800-1811,
Napoleonic1
Thomas 1816-1830,
Dutch
1830-1870,(
when was employed
1870-1900,
emergence and, 1900-1942,
program()
borrowed work
and autonomy."
Two
and na-
— vague were
and expanding European
... The
economic development, brought general bankruptcy.

[24]

European
more
common marketing
economic life
on m....
ways,., which
government, Achinese war been
ended and huge...
were
they demanded autonomy
... They wanted more
government capable of opening and of
and...
In Dutch colony was
ment and government was obliged its con-
its modernize the and its
The
and
seemed,

From Company,
engage
opium, the gambling
pawnshops, and and
China. monopoly
on who paid company government
•k
Italics.

[25]
itself an and

means Once Chinese was
is, revenue
Dutch
was need and pay European
peanized and,
money
The whole revenue came
end of the
The opium because
were viewed ap-
enemies of
The is key with which government
... The Chinese
evermore deeply Moreover, Javanese, en-
dowed Nature much cunning is
them"^
It was
Dutch,... abo-
would
economic, and The
Dutch government and
Chinese
... how much one
it
measure are employed
... Because it is now aim
government it
which
..

.
[26]

Concrete evidence government
ance with its new-found
it Chinese can
economic power. Chinese were
As an bya
monopoly on Madura 1894 and Java
government monopoly announcement
would ended
monopoly was
and was talk among
would ended. Added
government
and thus
Chinese
It Is size
do
and and
A
sell and
More unlike
to were
and on
of opium,
and
moneylender.
accord-
first
government opium
The
1898 opium
The
same
monop-
were
I
because official
were
was likely
on a
Nothing
become
were

[27]
The wealthiest Chinese had invested heavily in opium farms, pawn-
shops, and other licensed enterprises; but around 1900, as a result of
the termination of revenue farming, "a great deal of [their] capital
was freed...." Or, from the Chinese viewpoint, many well-
established businesses were forced to close and Chinese financial losses
were heavy. Many hundreds of Chinese, the employees of the farmers,
were made jobless. On the political side, the Chinese farmers had
been divested of their semi-official status and came to be merely "sub-
12
jects without any legal or extralegal privileges."
Major Chinese Grievances
An estimate of the amount the Chinese of the colony paid in taxes
1900 is The available do

adequately burden among
on Chinese
government were
On spokesman government
Chinese The
any paying
and what seemed ex-
The Chinese were because was
because it was without compensation.
It Dutch scheme
whereby were with paying
which
and paying
, which on a
revenue f. Chinese

[28]

N.I. was and
1920.^

and f. 1 it remem-
European community. few
who
were less heav-
and
economic have
and and is
way even approximate it is
was
among Chinese gov-
and full European come
were
were
and
is abundant documentation
and need many
it The 1900 been authorized
government decree
Java and Madura equipped one
Such were
commerce and
peace." A
was each
when concerned was known name,"

.
[29]
such persons being exempt from the vise requirements. The system
seemed to imply that the great majority of Chinese, forced to arm them-
selves with visaed passes, were of bad name. It Is improbable that
the Dutch government deliberately sought to insult the Chinese under
its flag, yet the victims of the passenstelsel regarded the system as a
disparaging slur
The great latitude granted officials in the determination of the quali-
fications of applicants for passes was an invitation to bureaucratic arbi-
trariness and petty corruption, and, indeed, these evils did result.
Even if it is assumed, as In fairness it must be, that the majority of
pass applications received conscientious and honest treatment, obtain-
ing a pass was still both "troublesome and expensive." Applicants were
obliged to present themselves at a specified time outside a government
office, where long queues of Chinese often formed and where a day
might be lost In waiting. Tax stamps had to be placed on passes, and
thus the pass system was a source of government revenue gained exclu-
sively from foreign Asians.
The irritations of the pass system were sharply intensified with the
abolition of revenue farming at the close of the last century. When It
was necessary, under the revenue farming system, for the government
to permit large numbers of Chinese to travel in the Interior for the pur-
pose of operating their licensed concessions, passes were not difficult
to obtain. However, when revenue farming was ended, there was no
longer any officially endorsed legitimate reason for the travel of many
Chinese. Furthermore, the ethical program's concern with the pro-
tection of the natives made the restriction of Chinese travel appear
morally justified. In 1897 the government announced Its Intention to
supervise more closely Chinese travel, and. In the words of a highly

[30]

f. one who

meant making it
1
When enforcement of 1863 began
it became new
home. A was
one Meester an
even In an emergency,
because reach
In mountain
where it was
was of
A Chinese apprehended withouta
made were liable
It is wonder "many them-
on
exempt
It Is
. European
became employ Chinese
and, more Chinese
were As when new
was Chinese commercial activity,
Dutch government
its Chinese The
revenue and accompanying

.
[31]
. Dutch

baya were have f. 1,140,000 1896 as a
and
Java showed between 1895 and A
few Dutch Sukabumi
win government to who
its Dutch
alarmed which seemed
20
Not only were
were
was accordance
among list Chinese were
known collectively. Dutch, as,
weak convey meaning. It would
main-
tenance for It
can zoning system,
which makes Its its
The Its
congregate their own
and Dutch
If in num-
The 1900 were
which
Foreign Orientals, resident in Netherlands India, will, so far as
possible, be concentrated in separate districts, under the leader-
ship of their own chiefs.

:.
[32]

f. f. 100 and were removed, forcibly if

was an 1866
zoning still in which
In and revenue
and empowered
where
The
made it were "more
30,000 on Java where Chinese could employees
in guard
„22
..,
As revenue
zoning In 1900 Governor General
new and more 1866 zoning laws
Java and Madura and made a
Outer zoning were
Again Dutch
had blow.
complained new
zoning In
when some knowledge
medicine down
were
The own some Chinese
crowded, and hot.
appear covered moldy

i.e., the Chinese and other foreign Asians, were the defendants. Europeans were of course brought before "European courts." The Chinese long viewed the police courts as the keystone of their grievances. The evil of the system lay ultimately in the fact that the courts were not

[33]
In a tropical land of gleaming sunshine, Indonesia's old Chinese quar-
ters seem oddly dark and are enveloped in dankness. The former Euro-
pean neighborhoods are, when possible, on elevated ground and have
wide clean streets; the Chinese districts are down by the malarial harbor
or river. Once a Chinese district was established, it was difficult for
the Chinese to expand territorially, as their district was surrounded by
non-Chinese areas from which the native or European inhabitants could
not readily be expelled. As a result, the Chinese districts grew in-
creasingly unpleasantas the population increased. Forced residence in
a Chinese district often spelled financial loss or great inconvenience,
as in the example of a Chinese sugar mill owner who was obliged to
travel daily ten kilometers each way between his mill and the district
in which he was required to live. To compound this injury, the Chinese
in question was also forced to have a travel pass to make his twenty-
,
kilometer
.,.
journey. 24
The enforcement of the pass and zoning systems, as well as that of
the criminal code of Netherlands India, was under the jurisdiction of
the police courts, often referred to collectively and somewhat inaccu-
rately as the politierol or police docket. These courts tried the less
serious criminal cases in which natives or "those assimilated to them,"
25
instruments for dispensing justice but tools of the administrators.
... it was necessary to maintain an old Asian form of adminis-
tration, consisting of absolute power for the Governor General
and his lieutenants in the residencies, and on the opposite side.

[34]
populace, obedience

A... because com-

would it was
where
can have an obedience
power
which can On
empowered
and its ex-
Only was
From... where a govern-
ment officio I,
own
if it,
and...
were
and which
aim team same becomes
.
^"
Above the police same
where more were
were headed European who might be a
As 1916 it
was
were two
when Chinese
were Even when head
was
bench. If, is
were
was an was
bench European
new principle of native elevation

.
[35]

N.I. Chinese and mention what it

and The
is was accordance
is humane."
and
were, when
and
The cen-
were and
trial and wait one
uncommon
The were
meted A Dutch
in
would gang. Conviction
in and
an much The
European punishment was it
was view on gang
and pack
When it is decade
24,000 30,000 appeared
and 5,000 it is
Chinese were much concerned
neighborhood one Chinese
was each
Up government

—
[36]

In it can
little was done and
publicized its were
. was of course
which populace expected wide
it was a where few
government
The can was composed
European and popula-
The maintenance and
the appeared concerned
and Dutch
was Even an
In
Batavia was Only 1902 were
and
20,000 It was the government
make any
30
which Chinese
Government Education for Chinese
The fairly common accusation that "nothing was done for the edu-
cation of Chinese children" Is too strong; but It Is not Inaccurate to
observe that woefully little was provided by the government In this re-
spect. No separate schools for Chinese were supported by officio I funds
in 1900. Direct government subsidization of private Chinese schools

[37]

f. month

was known. was Chinese
Councilor Road at Batavia,a body headed theMajoor,
Chinese
were willing have
Government-sponsored Malay-language all
excluded Chinese them
in Dutch-language
was concerned, the Chi-
were an In 1900 were
"non-European" government N. I.,
and appear have been
The same year saw mere 1,870 and
government 15,562 and 97
European were,
8,085 pupils
above, government
The exclude Chinese
Dutch-language was If
hove Dutch-language
were
who was head was hope
accepted." Even if Dutch
32
and was room"
were, some
Dutch schools;
Chinese was f. lOto
Chinese was required

[38]

f. 100 per month, and

enough Dutch In
engage a Dutch
was
Dutch Dutch
and
was one
movement

The machinery government was
men even
It is document is some
and, it is necessary
view
more Chinese which
members. The
were
pay on and
government It was only examina-
were
34
opened
The Dutchmen who and power
have been
among
age It been

[39]

was an
opening of the The
and development of speedy, safe
new
economy and con-
an Dutchmen, European
35
between 1880 and
among new were. It
Dutch women; and an often commonplace Is
women chances
In any event, the
between Dutch and and
community
and
The new and
Chinese activities were
new on own Dutch
was able Chinese with con-
As one It: "One cannot
who Is
means
economic
people," and
way was opened
36
The been described, ac-
its non-Europeans.
Dutch own
Non-Europeans who

[40]

unacceptably
and
always
own and. The languages
do have any comparable
pean N.I. was
Dutch its As
1909 it was government
who educated, Dutch-speaking
37
them Javanese some other
Chinese was
Chi-
The lowliest bureau-
was Inconvenience and even
was made. It was
Dutch one
remove Young
little work have somehow
power on
government
Its non-Europeans John
Doe," Mr. John Doe." an
and make the
China, wear
Western dress It was
and example.

[41]