Baca PDF (OCR): The Nimboran Language

THE NIMBORAN LANGUAGE

VERHANDELINGEN

VAN HET KONINKLIJK INSTITUUT VOOR TAAL-, LAND- EN VOLKENKUNDE

DEEL 44

J. C. ANCEA UX

THE NIMBOlt4N L.4.NGU.4.GE PHONOLOGI' ..tND MORPHOLOGI'

'S'GRAVENHAGE-MARTINUS NIJHOFF-1965

PREF ACE

During three years of linguistic research in \Vestern N ew Guinea in the service of the Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde (Royal Institute of Linguistics, Geography and Ethnology, The Hague) , the writer had as his main task the study and analysis of a hitherto undescribed langllage. \Vhen the choice feIl on the Nimboran language, it was not to be foreseen that this meant opening up a gold mine of linguistic data. Indeed, the investigations, though of ten slow and laborious, proved most rewarding. The amount of data was so overwhelming that ren10uiding them into a complete description required much time. Moreover, it was my wish to do more than just listing the facts. From the outset, I tried to undig the generative aspect of the linguistic structure. Therefore, the idea was not to compile a corpus of data which could be analysed later on, but to find out what role every element that was recorded could play in building new utterances. This meant that the description was to be made along new lines. It was only af ter years that I found the peace to complete this task. In the near future I hope to add a description of Nimboran syntax, some texts, and a vocabulary to the phonological and morphological parts, embodied in the present volume.

I owe agreat debt of gratitude to the Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde for both organizing the research and publishing the results, and to the former Government of N etherlands New Guinea and the Netherlands Organisation for the Advancement of Pure Research (Z.W.O.) for liberally subsidizing the project.

I am also deeply in debt to Dr. J. van Baal, th en Governor of Netherlands New Guinea, whose sympathetic and interested attitude appeared most helpful, and to Mr. C. J. Grader and Dr. J. V. de Bruyn of the Bureau of Native Affairs (Kantoor voor Bevolkingszaken) who did very much in paving the way and taking charge of all sorts of practical arrangements. Much help was also given by the DistrictOfficers, Dr. Vv'. J. H. Kouwenhoven and Mr. E. van Voskuylen.

VI PREFACE

Warm thanks are also due to Dr. E. M. Uhlenbeck and Dr. H. Schultink for their important suggestions and constructive critici sm of which, I hope, I have gratefully taken advantage.

It is impossible to mention the names of all those who in some way or other have been he1pful. Above all, this is true for the Nimboran people whose assistance, willingness, hospitality, and patience were essential for the success of my work. I will hold them in grateful remembrance for the rest of my life.

CONTENTS

Page V PREFACE . CONTENTS VII LINGUISTIC MAP OF THE NIMBORAN-SENTANI AREA. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . XIV MAP OF THE NIMBORAN LANGUAGE AREA. XV INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. The Nimboran language and its speakers. . 1 2. Surrounding languages and linguistic relationships . 1 3. How the materials were collected . 2 PART ONE: PHONOLOGY. 5 I. THE WORD • . 7 II. THE PHONEMES . 8 1. Nature and function of phonemes . 8 2. The system of the (segmental) phonemes in general outline. . . . . . . . 9 3. Extra-systematical phonemes . 9 lIl. DESCRIPTION OF THE VOWEL-PHONEMES • 10 1. i 10 2. e 11 3. a . 13 13 4. y. 5. o. 14 15 6. u. IV. DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSONANT-PHOl"EMES • 15 1. p. 15 2. b. 16 3. m. 17

VIII CONTENTS

Page 4. t . 18 5. d. 19 6. n. 20 7. k. 21 8. g. 22 9. '3. 23 10. r . 23 11. s . 24 12. h. 25 v. VOWEL-SEQUENCES . 27 1. The mutual combinability of vowe1-phonemes 27 2. Vowe1-sequences beginning with i 28 3. Vowe1-sequences beginning with e 29 4. Vowel-sequences beginning with y 29 5. Vowe1-sequences beginning with a 29 6. Vowel-sequences beginning with u 30 7. Vowe1-sequences beginning with 0 31 VI. CONSONANT-SEQUENCES 31 1. The mutual combinability of consonants 31 2. Consonant-sequences beginning with p 32 3. Consonant-sequences beginning with b 32 4. Consonant-sequences beginning with m 32 5. Consonant-sequences beginning with t 33 6. Consonant-sequences beginning with d 34 7. Consonant-sequences beginning with 11 34 8. Consonant-sequences beginning with k 34 9. Consonant-sequences beginning with 9 34 10. Consonant-sequences beginning with '3 34 11. Consonant-sequences beginning with r 35 12. Consonant-sequences beginning with s 35 13. Consonant-sequences beginning with h 36 14. Extra-systematical consonant-sequence 36 VII. THE ACCENT. 36 1. Description of the accent. 36 2. The structural function of the accent . 37 3. Words having two accents . 38 4. Words without an accent 39 VIII. WORD-ALTERNANTS . 39 1. Partly homophonous synonyms 39 2. Speed-alternants 40

CONTENTS

Page 3. Conditioned word-alternants 41 4. Free alternants 42 IX. LOAN-WORDS. 43 43 1. Foreign influence on Nimboran vocabulary 2. Adapted and unadapted loan-words . 44 3. Characteristics of adapted loan-words 44 PART TWO: MORPHOLOGY. 49 I. INTRODUCTION • 51 1. Morphology: categories of form and meaning 51 2. Morphemes . 51 3. Morphological categories and syntactic valenee . 52 4. Morphological sets. Lexical and categorie meaning . 52 5. Zero morphemes 53 6. Productivity . 54 7. The limits of productivity 54 8. Competitive forms . 55 9. Morphological systems and their internal organizatiol1 55 10. Suppletion 56 II. TUE PRODUCTIVE CATEGORIES OF THE VERB-SYSTEM • 56 1. Introduction . 56 2. The categories of the First Persol1 and of the Second Person. The order of the categories of the Actor 56 3. The category of the Third Person Masculine 57 4. The category of the Third Person Neutral . 58 5. The categories of Future, Present, and Past . 58 6. The category of the Recent Past 60 7. Morphonological variations 61 8. Other morphonological variations 61 9. The Second Position category. Two accents on verbfu~ ~ 10. The Third Position category . 63 11. The Fourth Position category 63 12. The Fifth Position category 63 13. The First Position category as opposed to the others 64 14. Morphonological remarks in connection with the Position categories . 64 15. Future forms of the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position categories . 66 16. Present forms of the Second Position category . 67 17. Present - Recent Past in the Second Position category 69 x CONTENTS

18. Present - Recent Past forms of the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position categories . 69 19. The Sixth Position category 70 20. The Seventh Position category 71 21. The Eighth Position category . 72 22. The Ninth Position category . 73 23. The Tenth Position category . 73 24. The Eleventh Positioll category 74 25. The Twelfth Position category 75 26. The Thirteellth Position category 75 27. Tbe Fourteentb Position category 77 28. Tbe Fifteentb Positioll category . 77 29. The Sixteellth Positioll category . 78 30. Survey of tbe Position categories : two groups 79 31. The category of the First + Second Person Singnlar 80 32. The category of the Dna! in the Second to Sixteellth Position categories . 83 33. Dual forms of tbe First Position category . 85 34. The First + Second Person Dnal . 85 35. The Root-morpheme in the Dual and Singnlar forms 86 36. Tbe category of the PIuraI . 91 37. The form of the root-morpheme in PIuraI forms 93 38. PIn ral forms of tbe Sixtb to Sixteentb Position categories . 97 39. Iterative forms of tbe First Positioll category. The Iterative category and tbc Momcntary category . 97 40. Iterative forms of the other Position categories . 98 41. The MascuIine Object category 103 42. Tbe Plural Object category 105 43. The Durative category 107 44. Iterative forms of tbe Durative 109 45. Tense categories in the Durative . 111 46. The category of tbe Infinitive . 111 47. Tbe category of the FinaI Infinitive . 114 48. The First Secondary Verb Category 117 49. The Second Secondary Verb Category . 121 50. The Third Secondary Verb Category 122 III. THE BLOCKADING CATEGORIES MW WORDS OF TIIE VERB-SYSTEM 123 1. Introduction . 123 2. BIockading categories of the Unspecified Object 123 3. BIockading categories of the MascuIine Object. 140 4. BIockading categories of tbe Plu ral Object 145 5. Blockading categories of the Singular 153 6. The Dual category of tbe prefixed k 155 7. BIockading categories of the Plu ral . 156

CONTENTS XI

Page 8. Blockading category of the First + Second Person Dual . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 9. Blockading category of the First Person Plural 159 10. Blockading category of the Third Person Plural 160 11. Blockading category of the Eighth Position . 161 12. Blockading category of the Ninth Position . 161 13. Blockading category of the Tenth Position . 161 14. Blockading category of the Fifteenth Position 161 15. Blockading categories of the Infinitive 162 16. Blockading words for the Infinitive. . . . 163 17. Blockading category and a blockading word for the Final Infinitive. . . . . . . . . . 164 IV. THE ADDITIONAL CATEGORIES OF TUE VERB-SYSTEM 165 1. The Ferninine Object category . . . 165 2. The category of the Second Person Plural 165 V. THE MORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF THE PRONOUNS 167 1. Introduction . . . 167 2. The zero category . 167 3. The -me category . 167 4. The -mbe category 168 5. The -myene category . 168 6. The -mso category 168 7. The -msié category 168 VI. MORPHOLOGICAL CATEGORIES OF TIIE SUBSTANTIVE 169 1. Introduction. . . 169 2. The necategory . 169 3. The berecategory 169 INDEX OF TERMS. . 171 INDEX OF NIMBORAN WORDS 173 T ABLE OF VERB-FORMS. . . 185

LINGUISTIC MAP OF THE NIMBORAN-SENTANI AREA

AND

MAP OF THE NIMBORAN LANGUAGE AREA

LINGUISTIC MAP of the TARFIA Nimboran - Sentani Area PACIF I C OCEAN TANAH -MERAH CYCLOPS MOUNTAINS MEKWEI NIMBORAN KWANSU SENTANI URIA SEN KAMTUK GRESI 4 10 KILOMETRES

NIMBORAN Language Area N IMBORAN HILLS '? f f KI«'DMETRE5

INTRODUCTION

1. The Nlmboran language and lts speakers.

The Nimboran language, as it is commonly called, is spoken by some 3000 people who caB themselves nembruófj or nembruóufj and live in a rather flat area in the basin of the fjgremi river (Grime on the maps) and on the northern slopes of the hills south of that plain. This area lies west of Lake Sentani, not very far from the north coast of New Guinea.

Af,ter the second world war a number of Nimborans, for the greater part young people, gradually settled in Hollandia, the new capitalof the then Netherlands territory, where they came to constitute an important group, consisting of several hundreds of people who kept alive the conneotions with their original country and always thought of their stay in town as being temporary.1

2. Surroundlng languages and lingulstic relationships.

The N imboran language area is enclosed by the area of the U ria language in the west and south, by the Gresi area in the south-east, the language of the villages Kwansu and Bonggrang and the Kamtuk language in the east, by the Tanahmerah language in the north-east, and by the languages of Demta and Tarfia in the north.

Of all these languages only Tarfia does not show any relationship to Nimboran.2 The closest rela:tionships of Nimboran are those with the languages of Gresi, Kwansu-Bonggrang, Kamtuk and Mekwei (also called Menggwei). The last-mentioned language is spoken in a number of villages, lying between Sentani Lake and the 110rth coast, and so is enc10sed by the Sentani language and the Tanahmerah language which is closely related to Sentani. 3 Nimboran, Kwansu-Bonggrang, Gresi, Kamtuk, and Mekwei constitute a dose-knit linguistic subgroup; the speakers of these languages also show many common features in their cultures.

Of these languages Gresi and Kamtuk are most closely related. The position of the Kwansu-Bonggrang language may be said to be half way between these and Nimboran. The position of Mekwei within the subgToup is a bit more apart. So it might he said that the geographical posi'tÏon of these five languages is fairly reflective of their mutual relationships.

3. Bow the materIaIs were collected.

The data for the present description were gathered in the years 1954 to 1957. In the following years from time to time incidental additions were made. The way of collecting data was based on the assumption thatan accurate idea of the structure of a language can only be formed when theresearcher bas acquired a sufficient degree of mastery - both active and passive - of the language in question. This appeared to be an exaoting and timetaking affair, but was most remunerative. However, even if the researcher leams to speak the language, he can i11 dispense with the help of informants, because otherwise he might stand in jeopardy of describing not the language itself but only that part of it which hehas leamed to use. On the other hand mastering the language is a powerful means to the efficient use of informants.

During ,these years so many people served as informants for the research from which the present description has resulted, that it is impossrble to mention all their names. But an exception must be made for Dina Napo, an adolescent gir!, who was a daily collaborator for years. She proved to possess an outstanding intelligence and a natural gift for linguistic work which was not hampered by any preconceived theory which might have made it less easy for her to look upon her language wirt1h an open mind. Very soon she got a c1ear perception of the how and why of linguistic research and helped to think out means to discuss linguistic matters in her own language, showing great powers of invention in coining grammatical terms etc. Moreover, she had the sense not only to check up - in a crafty, subtIe way - doubtful points wi1!h other informants, but also to be constantly in search for exceptions

INTRODUCTION 3

to the "rules", already established, and for proofs of the correctness or fallacy of preliminary conclusions (the larter case receiving her preferential consideration !).

W ork with Dina and other infonnants in Hollandia was kept going and supplemented by the results of periodical visits to the Nimboran villages. During these stays usually no systematic procedures were followed and most of the attention was given to the unconstrained, freeand-easy, conversation of the villagers which always yielded points for further investigation. As a matter of fact, it would have been impossible without observation on the spot to fonn an accurate idea of the Nimboran people's environment, daily life, and culture and correspondingly of the words of their language and ,the contents of their conversation.

Although collecting traditional tales was not entirely neglected, the main object always was the study of the living language: detection of the rules according to which the Nimboran language is spoken.4

PART ONE:

PHONOLOGY

I. TUE WORD

Before proceeding to the description of the Nimboran speech-sounds and their functions, we have to discuss a term which - although a common notion in non-linguistic use - in many linguistic publications is either purposely avoided or used without any definition or discussion : the word. Our description is based on the standpoint that the Nimboran languagehas words as its smaJlest independenrt: meaningful units. As this is not ,the place to set forth the theoretical backgrounds of this viewpoints, reference may be made to the existing literature.1

In general, the word, as a linguistic unit, is characterized by:

1. a fixed form, connected with a meaning,

2. isolability.

That a word has its own form and meaning, comes from its signvalue.2 By "fixed form" we mean a set of specific sound-characteristics in a fixed order. Seeming exceptions to this rule will be dealt with separately (see esp. chapter VIII). The term "isolability" does not mean that every word may be used separately (i.e. as the only constituent of a sentence), but refers to the fact that words have 1:Ihe possihility of being separated from surrounding words, e.g. by the insention of other words.

The assumpttion of the word, as a basic unit, neither denies the possibility of border-line cases, like the "sub-words", discussed in eh. VII, 4, nor is in any way contradicted by the existence of such border-cases.

Phonologica:l characteristics of words as such willbe discussed in ohapters III to VII.

D. TUE PBONEMES

1. Nature and functlon of phonemes.

In the preceding chapter we stated that every word has its specific sound-form. These forms consist of sound-units which are called phonemes. Phonemes differ from eaeh other in distinctive features; each phoneme may be considered as a bundIe of sueh di·stinetive soundfeatures.

Phonemes are important means for the identification of word-forms through hearing. The determination of the role, played by any phoneme in the recognizability of a word-form, is conditioned by several factors, including the number of phonemes constituting the word,3 the existence (or non-existenee) of other words which show a certain degree of similal"ity in sound-form to the word in question, and the eontribution to the recognizability offered by the context or the situation. In the practical use of language redundancy of means of identification is of quite common occurrenee. The distinctive value of phonemes, their identificational function, reaches a maximum, when words are isolated from any context.4

So the distinctive value of phonemes does not stand out clearly under all cil"Cumstances. On the other hand not all phonemes are the same in this respect, as they appear to show differences in their possibilities of mutual combinability and in the places they can occupy in a word-form. Consequently, some phonemes have much more chance of showing their distinctive, identificational, value than other phonemes have. But the mere fact that a sound-unifs possibilities of occurrence are limited, need not he a reason for denying its phoneme-status. In the discussion of the separate phonemes we will co'me across some instances of this sort.

Om description of the phonetic characteristics of the phonemes will be limited to tihe way in which the sounds are produced. 5 Of course their identificational function is connected with their acoustical qualities but, as we are not able to make a description along these lines, we are forced to confine ourselves to the articulatory characteri<stics, as is indeed c{)l11mon practice.

2. The system of the (segmental) phonemes in general outIlne.

The Nimboran language makes use of 6 voweland 12 consonantphonemes.

The vowels are all unrounded and voiced.6 They contrast in tongue height and tongue placement. They can he charted as follows:

The consonants may contrast in:

1. presence or absence of voicing,

2. point of articulation,

3. shape of articulator,

4. impedance or exit type.

They ean be charted as follows:

3. Extra-systematlcal phonemes.

Outside this scheme are two sound-units, occurring only in interjections.7 They are very limited in their occurrence, each of them found in one word only (and these words are very much limited in their use). These extra-systema:tical phonemes are:

10 voiced bilabial trill f3 which is rather prolonged, in mbf3(:)asié - a cry, used by hunters;

20 voiceless dorso-velar fricative x in ax - ah!

DI. DESCRIPTION OF THE VOWEL-PHONEMES

1. i.

i is a voiced high close front llnrouded vocoid. It OCCllrs word-initially, word-medially, and word-finally: imyt3 - face, inióm - middle, darib - cold, ki - woman, bedi - old.

It is lowered to high open position

1 ° if immediately followed by the consonant-cluster mb: brimbu - a field-name, nimbrout3 - squatting;

2° if not having an accent and being immediately followed by wordfinal13: násifj - go away, mánit3 - not yet;

3° if immediately followed by a second i which has no accent 9: sii - squeeze, biiáb - good.

Some speakers, very few in number, sometimes replace a word-final i which has no accent and is immediately preceded by i or e, by a voiced back dorso-velar stop [G] and actualize náfjgrei - th ree, as [nalJgreG], iii - divide, as [iiG], etc.1 0

The contrastive value of i in opposition to other vowels and zero appears from the following instances 11 :

isie - forest-hen esie - rain-drops iári - casuarina-tree iáre - source kcné - liver keni - hearing ki - woman ka - out of the way there I t3grit3 - draw fjgrafj - bumble-fly pie - scrotum Páe - mutually krim - dirty krym - companion sib - place syb - top

2. e.

e is a voiced mid front unrounded vocoid, occurring word-initially, word-medially, and word-finally: ePie - tortoise, kené -liver, bekéi - rise.

It has some allophones, conditioned by its place in the word and by ,the surrounding phonemes.

If word-final, e is aotualized as:

10 mid close front vocoid [ e], if having an accent and not being immediately preceded by y, and also if not having an accent and being immediately preceded by an a which has an accent, e.g. bre - sago-beetle, reké - hot, kié - time, káe - where?, kuáe - hedge, fence, benáe - fat.

An exception is the e of the words be (here you are, etc.), nde (if, etc.), and de (of, etc.) which is usually actualized in mid open front position [E].

20 mid central vocoid [;}], if immediately preceded by )I, and also if it has no accent and is immediately preceded by i, having an accent, or by u, having an accent. E.g.: yé - meat, dedye - inarticulate, háye - pepper, kie - hand, mensue - no se.

30 mid open front vocoid [el in all other cases, e.g.: táne - with, háke - torch.

If not wOl;d-final, the distribution of the allophones of e is:

10 mid open front vocoid [E] in the following cases:

a. if it has an accent and is not immediately followed by wordfinal y, e.g. : matéb - afraid, mési - foot, leg, ndéi - root, méuo - in front, kasbéuofj - kind of prey-bird.

b. if immediately followed by i or word-medial y, e.g.: keitré - giant taro, keiru - barb, neikáo - narrow, tey! - jump, meyosuo - embarrassed, ieyen!fj - caterpillar.

c. if immediately followed by a consonant or consonant-cluster which is immediately followed by i or y, e.g. keby - hornbill, mensy - navel, me1Jgyéi - tie together, kekiá - poignant (taste), be1Jgim~ - triton-shell.

If the vowel which immediately follows the consonant or consonant-cluster is an i which bears an accent, the mid open front vocoid is in free variation with a low close front vocoid [re], e.g. : kent - hearing, keki - raw, mentEfj - algae.

2° mid close front vocoid [e], if immediately preceded by a, e.g.: benaeskártt - a field-name, imokáero - a field-name.

3° mid centra! vocoid [~] in all other environments, e.g.: kebó - netbag, méy - eloud, mendu - skull, fjgetéy - rub, be1JgátJ - wasp, tJgátey - tattoo-mark.

A relatively small number of speakers - the same as those having a similar pronunciaJtion of the final i (see § I) - actualize word-final e, if it has no accent and is immediately preceded by y, as a voiced back dorso-velar stop [G], e.g. [13griG] for tJgrYe.12

The contrastive value of e in opposition to other vowels and zero is shown by the following instances (for the opposition e - i see the examples in the final part of § 1):

me - mother ma - hand it over I dem - paddIe dam - eat iéfJgy - name of a river iáfjgy - turtle-dove debum - unripe dab(tm - joint between head and shaft of an arrow téy - put down tye - push mensé - sisteror mensy - navel brother-in-Ia w peb - peel pyb - stab, stick me - mother 1110 - sago máre - unconscious máro - a clan-name 1/Ófj - bird's nest uétJ - be slightly burned iré - slanting iru - bone dagger iáre - source iáru - shoulder ndi - dream ndie - this, that epie - tortoise pie - scrotum keré - shoring-timber kre - extinguish

3. G.

a is a voiced low centra! unrounded vocoid [a]: it occurs wordinitially, word-medially, and word-finally: apiáf3 - stop up, krap - shadow, maréma - soft.

1t is slightly fronted and a bit prolonged, if it is the only vowe1 of a word and is followed by 1n or b, e.g. tab - path, road, mab - earth, sam - letter.

1t is slightly backed [a], if word-final and having an accent, e.g. sa - tail, tekuá - si de, ba - faro

I t is actualized as voiced low back unrounded vocoid [ä], if immediate1y followed by an 0 which has an accent, e.g. betaóitiu - we pull out, dekaóikam - they tied together.

1t is in free variation with a mid open altemant, if it precedes a vowe1 which has an accent, and is immediate1y followed by a consonant, e.g. taf3gáf3 - cord, iamó - house.

As examples for the opposition between a and i and e were already given in § 1 and § 2, we here give some instances of minimal pairs showing the opposition between a and y, 0, u, and zero:

Páe - mutually pye - set on fire besám - unwilling bes)'m - village-name ka - out of the way there! ky - faeces pro - leaf pra - cross over iáu - flying-fox ióu - f13it densiáf3 - noon densióf3 - little finger ba - far bu - water delláo - tie together dekuo - enter asó - name of a riv er ftSÓ - tadpole kauáe - choose kuáe - wound iamó - house imó - bamboo

4. y.

Y 13 is a rather ten se voiced high close central unrounded vocoid [iJ, occurring word-initially, word-medially, and word-finally: yé - meat, yésku - female cuscus, f3yéi - stir, nCf3gyb - withered, sy - name, deby - heart.

Some speakers give the y a slightly backed articulation. As precise1y the same speakers are distinguished by a typical articulation of the ft

(see § 6), these two facts are obviously connected. The number of these speakers can not be given; probably they are in a minority.

If y has an accent and is immediately followed by 1:, it is less tense and lowered to high open position, e.g. tJget},idiu - we shall rub, fJgedyikam - they atJtached.

As examples for the opposition between y and i, e, and a were given in the §§ 1 to 3, we here only give instances of minimal pairs showing the opposition between y and 0, u, and zero:

ió - we iy - bird keby - hornbill kebó - netbag kytJ - stoop kOfJ - set down iáy - aunt, unele iáo - on guard ky - faeces ku - time, day demye - dead demue - stone iáry - strong (wind) iáru - shoulder me - mother méy - eloud káy - a proper name ka - out of the way there! kra - hunt kryá - defecate

5. o.

o is a voiced mid back unrounded vocoid, occurring word-initiaIly, word-medially, and word-finaIly: opMmutJ - (at) first, SOfJ - mosquito, tebáo - fry, bake, kaiteró - border.

The a1lophones of this phoneme are:

1 ° voiced mid elose back unrounded vocoid [ë], if the 0 is word-final and has no accent, e.g. mo - sago, bató - wide, broad.

2° voiced mid open back unrounded vocoid, if the 0 has no accent and is immediately preceded by an u which has an accent, and also if the 0 has an accent and is immediately followed by a wordfinal consonant, e.g. sleuo - crab, ibuo - pig, utób - star, betóm - freckle, mole.

3° voiced low close black unrounded vocoid, if the 0 is immediately followed by an 11 which is immediately followed by a word-final consonant, e.g. itJgóufJ - prickly, nimbróutJ - squatting.

In all other environments there is free variation between the mid open and mid close aIIophones, e.g. mámbrob - tongue, demápro - malaria, itJgáo - wash, dipróki - green, kuotenátJ - littIe, few.

As the oppositions between 0 and i, e, a, and y were demonstrated in the §§ 1 to 4, we here give only some instances of minimal pairs showing the opposition between 0 and u and zero:

do - there

du - child

nom - sufficient, enough nmn - know

iáo - on guard

t'áu - flying-fox

buo - hang out

bu - water

MUO - kind of frog

iáu - flying-fox

6. u.

ti is a voiced high close back unrounded vocoid [i]; it occurs wordinitially, word-medially, and word-finally: uáb - crawfish, umie - crocodile, kuirób - lightning, muo - make, nánteku - day before yesterday.

tt has a high open allophone, used - in all cases - by those speakers who are in the habit of using the backed allophone of y (see § 4).

A word-final u which has no accent and is immediately preceded by 0, is actualized as voiced back dorso-velar stop [G] by a minority of speakers,14 e.g. [spëG] for spóu - unloosen.

For examples for the opposition between u and other vowel-phonemes the reader is referred to §§ 1 to 5. The opposition between u and zero is apparent from minimal pairs like the following:

buá - beat ba - far

iróu - kind of frog iró - fiII

ruóu - teil róu - grasp

iui - kind of fruit ii - bum.

IV. DESCRIPTION OF TUE CONSONANT·PHONEMES.

1. p.

P is a voiceless bilabial stop, occurring word-initially, word-medially, and word-finally: pum - hole, pro - leaf, krapó - bad, dipróki - green, pákrup - lid, némpo - day af ter tomorrow.

The stop is in free variation with a voiceless bilabial fricative [E], but not if it is word-final or if it is immedately preeeded by m or s. Another case in whieh p can only be a stop, is found in those verbal forms in whieh final b of the root-morpheme eoneurs with an initial p of a morpheme; ,the resulting p is never aetualized as a frieative in sueh a case (see for this: Part Two, 11, 8).

If a word has a final p and syntaetieally is cIosely conneeted with an immediately following word and if the latter has an initial voieeless stop, the actualization of the p may be very lax so that it is scarcely audible, e.g. kip tekye - ehareoal.

The opposition between pand the other eonsonants and zero is apparent from the following instanees :

pempéifJ - trembIe bembéifJ - mud sip - blunt sib - place pab - chest mab - earth kyp - lime kym - eoconut imó - bamboo ipó - light (not heavy) péi - pour out téi - give práo - oceupy oneself tráo - lift up Páe - mutually dáe - smalI, littIe páo - soggy soil náo - break up pum - hole num - know dekye - kind of tree depye - body hair pri - hit kri - run away po - wiII, must "jo - I kifJ - blood kip - fire peb - peel reb - drink iári - casuarina-tree iápi - field-name pyb - stab, stick syb - top, tip esie - raindrops epie - tortoise prifJ - (to) fly hrifJ - wom hrym - companion prym - wide piáfJgu - kind of snake iáfJgu - turmeric ki - woman kip - fire ió - we ipó - light (not heavy)

2. b.

b is a voieed bilabial stop; it occurs word-initiaIly, word-mediaIly, and word-finaIly: bye - eanoe, brub - fold, kib - beat, debum - unripe.

PHONOLOGY 17 Verh. dl. 44 2

If word-final, b is always unreleased, or bett(;(: nasally released. In this position it may be voiceless; the format opposition between b and p then lies in the difference of release, as word-final p normally is orally released.

If a word has final band sy .. tactically is closely connected with an immediately following word and if the latter has an initial consonant, the b may be very Ia>:. so that it is hardly audible, e.g. betjgib dóutj - salt (lit. : sea-kerne13.

A smal I minority of speakers has a habit of actualizing word-final b as a. voiced labio-velar stop with nasal release.

Opposition between b and the other consonants (except p, ior which see the preceding §) and zero may be seen from the following instances:

bái - spiral

mái - inside

tob - scale

tom - sweet

ibuo - pig

imuo - kind of pigeon

bie - open

tîe - grub

kebi - stomach

ket! - below

béifj - crooked

déifj - wing

kabó - field-name

kadó - voilà, there (is)

batj - broken

natj - louse

nu - sight

bu - water

bie - open

kie - hand

kebi - stomach

kek/, - raw

báre - yotlrself

fjáre - myself

hrub - suck

hrufj - break, crush

bekéi - rise

rekéi - turn

bábu - grandfather

bánt - dear

bUfj - wait

SUfj - dust

ibtt - sleeping (arm, leg)

isu - shake

baió - name of a song

haió - kangaroo

brutj - lower end, bottom

hrufj - break, cTUsh

buá - beat

uá - kind of tree

syb - tip, -top

sy - name

3. m.

m is a voiced bilabial nasal, occurring word-initially, word-medially, and word-finally, e.g. máre - unconscious, demûe - stone, hambuátj - tobacco, mam - cassowary, pum - hole.

If m is word-final and not immediately followed by a pause, it IS not orally released.

The following minimal pairs may serve as examples for the opposition between mand other consonants (except pand b, for which see § 1 and § 2) and zero:

méndy - mouth téndy - one llámu - presently nátu - white bead 1IIéy - eloud déy - roast demye - dead dcdye - whispering mifj - breast nifj - stand umie - crocodile unie - mythological name ko - you mo - sago iamó - house iakó - cheerful fjafj - open (mouth) mam - cassowary slim - faded sUfj - dust 1Mfjg)'C - flatus refjgye - show imó - bamboo iró - fill ma· - hand (it) over! sa - tail kemye - kind of lizard kesye - ghost meni - other, some heni - ill máru - tie-beam háru - kind of arrow mái - inside ái - scream fjguám - dizzy fjguá - wake up imó - bamboo ió - we

4. t.

t is a voiceless apico-dental stop; it occurs word-initially and wordmedially, e.g. tenáfj - right, true, tety - fall oH, tym - cough.

1t is in free variation with voiceless lamino-alveolar stop [C], if immedia:tely followed by i. e.g. tie - grub. If this immediately follawing i has no accent and is immediately followed by avowel, t mayalso be actualized as a voiceless lamino-domal stop [tr ], e.g. peitiuá - old man, tetiyári - name of a elan.

For instances of the opposition bet ween tand bilabial consonants see the §§ 1 to 3: for the opposition between tand the other consonants and zero we give the following examples :

dekám - step-ladder mendifj - wall

tekám - bead

111 entîfj - algae

13getéy - rub 13gedéy - attach, fasten témpo - af ter three days némpo - day af ter tomorrow keU - below keni - hearing tebuá - short kebuá - moming iteká - blood-sucker ikeká - name of a river téi - give 13éi - tear, split tekuám - jaw rekuám - meat betáo - pull out beráo - flying stick (kind of locust) téy - put, lay down séy - dark itu - scorpion isu - shake t8fjgréi13 - lead the way he13gréi13 - thought tréy - collapse hré'J' - abduct, rape tuóu - cut down uóu - row nátu - white bead náu - warm

5. à.

d is a voiced apico-dental stop, occurring word-initially and wordmedially, e.g. desu - weak, ndi - dream, kudipró - animal, mendlláb - gras shopper.

1t is in free variation with a voiced lamino-alveolar stop [dr ], if it is immediate1y followed by i, e.g. bedi - old. If this immediately following i has no accent and is immediately followed by avowel, the d may also be actualized as a voiced lamino-domal stop [çl.r] , e.g. dió - gathering, indiu13 - kind of arrow.

As examples for the opposition between d and bilabial consonants and t were given in the §§ 1 to 4, we here give some instances of minimal pairs for the opposition between d and the other consonants and zero:

deri - you will be

neri - moss

dáo - give (many objects)

náo - break

dáe - small

káe - where?

di - wood

ki - woman

do - there

rum - wooden fork Itréy - rape

dum - name of a mountain

dam - eat

sam - letter

bedi - old

besi - neck

derim - he will be

herîm - he will go

dréy - a kind of stone axe dió - gathering ió - we

nánde - whose? náne - who?

ndáo - feel

náo - break

6. n.

n is a voiced apico-dental nasal; it occurs word-initially, wordmedially, and word-finally, e.g. nándu - yesterday, kenái - above. ndten - leaf-vein.

The occurrence of n in word-final position is limited to:

the c1an-names uáipon and uaistmon,

the word namuán - two,

a number of words in which the final n is immediately preceded by the vowel-sequence ue or te, e.g. buen - lean, teiyien - kind of bird.

It is a remarkable fact that no minimal pairs are found for the opposition between n and '3 in word-final position. Moreover, final 11 of foreign words which are borrowed by Nimboran is of ten replaced by '3, e.g. sábu'3 - soap, from Malay sabun.

FUl"'ther, a form uáipo'3 occurs as a free alternant sidt' by side with uáipon.

In view of all this there might he occasion to consider word-final n as an allophone of '3 (or the reverse). This would mean that the opposition between n and '3 is neutralized in word-final position. Against this are the following facts :

1 ° MUJtual substitution of n and '3 - also in word-final position - is feit by Nimboran speakers as the making of new words.

2° Only in the case of immediately preceding ue or ie the occurrence of word-final n would he environmentally conditioned.

3° Comparison of namuán with e.g. hambuá'3 (- tobacco) shows the two sound-units in equivalent environments.

4° The form uáiP013 (si de by side with uáipon) is undoubtedly a product of popular etymology: an attempt to invest this name with the meaning "see the sun" (uái po'3).

For these reasons word-final n may best be regarded as a 110rmal form of the phoneme n, although of limited occurence.

n is in free variation with a voiced lamino-alveolar nasal [11'], if immediately followed by i, e.g. ment - other, some. The lamino-alveolar allophone always occurs, if the n is immediately followed by the laminoalveolar allophone of tJ dj or s (see § 11), e.g. mentitJ - algae, ndie - this, th3lt, ánsitJ - come here I

If n is immediately followed by an i which has no accent and is immediately followed by avowel, besides the lamino-alveolar allophone, al ready mentioned, also a voiced lamino-domal nasal [1).7] occurs in free variation, e.g. minie - before, inióm - middle. The lamino-domal allophone always occurs, if n is immediately followed by the laminodomal allophone of ij dj or s (see § 11), iniiym - screen, cover, indió - mother, insium - mouse.

As examples for the opposition between n and the bilabial consonants, tJ and d are given in the §§ 1 to 5, we here give some instances of minimal pairs, showing the opposition between n and the other consonants and zero:

nab - spirit kab - game manó - mythological name makó - mode of procedure, Cl1stom no - he, she, it, they tJo - I, we natJ - louse tJatJ - open (mouth) rásitJ - come into contact násitJ - go away heni - ill heri - you will go náo - break sáo - chase away nu - sight su - walk on I náku - yolk háku - areca-nut nandátJ - theft handátJ - try ndi - dream di - wood mens}' - navel mesy - small bead náne - who? lIáe - sale

7. k.

k is a voiceless dorso-velar stop, occuring word-initially and wordmedially, e.g. krom - grindstone, karéy - quagmire, báky - dance, l?eikáo - narrow.

I? is slightly fronted, if it immediately precedes i or eJ e.g. kek;' - raw, kie - hand, iakéy - crumble.

Word-initial k may be rather lax, if the word in question is syntactically closely connected with the immediately preceding word and the latter has a final vowel. e.g. di kekuye - bush, shrub.

As examples for the opposition between k and the bilabial and apico-dental consonants are found in the §§ I to 6, we here give some minimal pairs, showing the opposition between k and the other consonants and zero:

8. g.

9 is a voiced dorso-ve1ar stop which is very much limited in its combinability with other phonemes. It is a bit fronted, if it is immediate1y followed by e or i, e.g. fjgesîm - roU up, befjgib - sea.

9 only occurs

word-mediaUy, preceded by 1'3 or - less frequently - by m, e.g. fjgyfj - fall, bCfjgáfj - wasp, damgóu - yawn.

word-initiaUy in ge which never occurs sentence-initially and also otherwise is limited in its possibilities of occurrence (see eh. VIII, § 3).

The result of this limited occurrence of 9 is that minimal pairs, showing the opposition between 9 and any other consonant, are of extreme rarity. Instances of contrast in similar environment are more easily found, e.g. néfjki - his wife, befjgib - sea. An instance of opposition with zero is fjgafj - construct (a waU), vs. fjafj - open (mouth).

Yet there is no reason for the assumption that 9 is nat a separate phoneme, for it does not occur in complementary distribution to any other speechsound and is not interchangeable with any other speechsound. This last statement seems to be contradictory to the fact that some verb-forms occur with I? as weU as with 9 without any difference

PHONOLOGY 23 ro - wash fJO - I, we ba - far ba13 - broken fJuáro13 - fibrous husk of uárofJ - nail coconut

in meaning (instances of this are given in Part Two, Ch. lI, § 44). These, however, must be regarded as different forms, as other verbforms, fully comparable with those in question, have g but never have k (cf. the difference between fonns of the 18t alld those of the 3" PositionCategory in the § mentioned above),16

9. t).

13 is a voiced dorso-velar nasal; it occurs word-initially, wordmedially, and word-finally, e.g. fJáre - myself, fJg.>'fJ - fall, indiofJéirum - Jew's harp.

lt is frollted, if immediately followed by i or e or by a k or g which is fronted because of an immediately following front vowel (see § 7 and § 8), and also if word-final and immediate1y preceded by i, e.g. fJéi - tear, rend, fJgie - resin, 13gesi13 - wipe oH, Itsi13 - say, tCfJgéi13 - cut.

H 13 is word-final and the immediately preceding vowel is a, this a is nasalized [a]. The same may happen to 0 or It, if immediate1y preceding a word-fillal 13, but then only as a free variant. With some speakers word-final 13. preceded by a nasalized vowel, is practically inaudible so that the 13 is mainly represellted by the nasalized quality of the preceding vowel. E.g. ta13gáfJ - string, uráfJ - long, temttfJ - remainder, SOfJ - mosquito.

As the opposition between 13 and other consonants has been discussed al ready in the preceding §§, we here give some instances of minimal pairs for the opposition between 13 and r, s, h, and zero:

13yéi - stir syéi - kind of fibre

13aió - father haió - kangaroo

10. r.

r is a voiced apico-alveolar vibrant; it OCCllrs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. karó13 - thorn, fJgra13 - bumble-fly, kekruáb - white, rert13 - push, shove.

The allophones of rare:

10 voiced lateral apico-domal flap [!] in free variation with voiced apico-alveolar flap [r], but with preferenee for the first, if immediately followed by i. e, or y and immediately preceded bye, i. or ft and also if being word-initial and immediately followed bye. i. or y; e.g. emberekáse - maize, herikenûm - purple, hri - go down, ftrynz - friend, iré - slanting, sloped, iryb - eamouflaged hunting-box in a tree, reb - drink.

20 voiced apico-alveolar flap [r] in free variation with voieed apicoalveolar trill [r] in all other environments with preference for the flapped allophone, except if immediately preeeded by k or g in whieh case the trilled allophone is preferred; e.g. nárob - rubbish, krap - shadow, iáre - souree, prifj - fly, krym - sound, Pákrup - lid, cover, náfjgrei - three.

As the opposition between rand all consonants other than s and k has been diseussed in the §§ 1 to 9, here instanees are given of minimal pairs for the opposition between rand s, lt, and zero only:

ráo - sleep sáo - drive away irû - bone dagger isû - shake máre - uneonscious máse - vomit ráye - a personal name káye - 10 a (different!) personal name 20 red pepper krûoráru - 1 will bury krûoháru - 1 will bury (it, her) him (here) there iáru - shoulder iáu - flying-fox ruóu - teIl, inform uóu - row

11. 8.

S is a voiceless apico-dental grooved frieative (rill-spirant), occurring word-initially and word-mediaIly, e.g. sy - name, besám - unwilling, skifj - ripe.

It is in free variation with voieeless lamino-alveolar grooved frieative [s'], if immediately followed by i, e.g. besib - bend, and at the same time with voiceless lamino-domal grooved frieative [~Y], if immediately followed by an i whieh has no accent and is immediately followed by a vowel, e.g. densmfj - noon, insiûm - mouse, isiû - shake.

PHONOLOGY 2S

As the relation between s and h will be discussed in the next § and the opposition between s and the other consonants was shown in the §§ 1 to 10, only the following examples are glven here, demonstrating the opposition between s and zero:

iá13 - ask siá13 - young man

skie - deep Ne - hand

spóu - undo póu - blow

usó - tadpole uó - nest

12. h.

h is a voiceless glottal fricative, occurring word-initially and - only in some verbal and pronominal forms and in some nam es - wordmedially. If word-initial and iml1lediately followed by 13 or n, it may be actualized as a voiceless nasal of the same point of articulation as the following nasal, so [IJ] or [N] respectively; e.g. h13ári - bird of paradise, hna13 - louse, hnum - know.

But many speakers (probably even a majority) never pronounce word-initial h which is immediately followed by 13, n, or r, and say ru for hru - man, etc. Therefore one might say that these speakers have zero as an allophone of ft in this environment. But this reasoning would do no justice to the fact that the speakers in question do not have any opposition between words like:

hna13 - louse, and na13 - straddle-Iegged,

hno - a place-name, and no - he, she, they,

hráo - carry, and ráo - sleep,

so that for them these pairs of words are just homophonous forms, whereas an opposition between thern does exist for the other speakers. In fact this a question of coexistence of an older 17 phase, in which there is opposition between h13- and 13-, between hnand n-, and between hrand r-, and a later phase, in which these oppositions do not exist, so that more homophonous words are found. The line, separating these two phases, lies in between individual speakers,18 although it is certainly not beyond possibility that the same speakers use forms of both phases a!ternately.

As the opposition between hand the other consonants, except s, has been discussed in the §§ 1 to 10, it remains to speak of the opposition between hand s and that between hand zero.

As to the opposition hetween hand zero, just now we saw that in certain environments this opposition is not found with all speakers. The remaining cases of word-initial hare those in which h is immediately followed by a vowel. But words having initia! h, immediately followed by i, y. or u,19 do not occur, whereas words having initial e, a, or 0 are very few in numher, so that the possibility for minimal pairs is extremely limited. The only instance found is that of hámbotJ - hom, and ámbotJ - Ambon, Ambonese (a loanword). Another proof for the existence of the opposition is given by the fact, that dropping an initial h (which is immediately folio wed by avowel) may affect the recognizability of the word in question: the (non-existing) word "áke" would not he accepted by any speaker of Nimboran as being identical with háke - torch, but is feit to be different.

Instances of opposition between hand zero in word-medial position are found in verb-forms, e.g.

tetJgátJháke - you knocked there tetJgátJáke - you knocked below.

More intricate is the question of s and h. No minimal pairs are found showing the opposition between these consonants. And not only that, but some words having s occur si de by side with words having the same meaning and the same form except for h instead of s. These cases are:

semitJ and hemitJ - food

sne and hne - breathless, panting

setJgó and /zetJgó - only

senátJ and henátJ - traditional, holy

so and ho - to, in regard to ; also the pronominal forms corresponding

to this,20 e.g. kómso and kómho - to you.

a number of proper nanles, e.g.

sàmofJgráfJ or hàmOfJgráfJ - name of a village safJgái or hafJgái - name of a village sno or hno - name of an abandoned village buserái or buherái - name of an old, magical bowl.

some verb-forms,21, e.g.

fJguásáku and fJguáháktt - I bit there.

These facts might give rise to the thought that s and h are not separate phonemes but only allophones of one phoneme. However, this is contradicted by ,the following facts :

lOlt is impossible to give a rule in terms of environment for the occurence of s or h, as they occur in similar environments, e.g.

habáfJ - firm sabó - ship haió - kangaroo saiáfJgu - rainy season.

20 Except in the cases, mentioned above, s and h are not interchangeable. One is not allowed to say "ham" instead of sam - letter, or "sabum" instead of habum - son, becallse Nimboran hearers would regard these as different words.

For these reasons it appears to be right to consider hand s as separate phonemes and treat the word-pairs, referred to above, as instances of word-alternants (for which see eh. VlII).22

V. VOWEL·SEQUENCES

1. The mutual combinabUlty of vowel-phonemes.

Sequences of two or more vowels are of frequent occurrence and show great variety_ In principle, any vowe1 may immediate1y follow any vowe1, with the following exceptions:

10 A sequence of two identical vowels is only possible with the high vowels; so ii, yy, and 1/1/ are possible, whereas ee, aa, and 00 do not occur.

20 Sequences of two mid vowels (eo or oe) do not occur.

30 y can not immediately follow o.

40 Sequences of more than five vowels are not found.

In the following §§ in stances of the various vowel-sequences wilt be given, arranged under the heading of their first vowel.

2. Vowel·sequences beglnning wUb i.

(ii) trfi - break, ii - bum, inifm - new.

(iiz) ifi - distribute.

(iie) siie - blister, iniie - father.

(iia) biiáb - good.

ienó - village, kie - hand, tebfe - mention, tem/en - big, (ie)

kieróm - toy, kié - time.

(ie,) iéi - poignant (taste).

(ieyz) iéyi - name of a clan.

(ieye) ieyenitJ - caterpillar.

(ieuo) iniéuo - relative on one's mother's side.

(iy) iy - bird, itiymbi - kind of bat, 11tániym - point, tip.

(iyi) iyindátJ - name of a river.

iyé - wave, signal. (iye)

(iya) tendiyám - alike, krendiyá - entangled.

iám - over, finished, iakó - gay, siá - praise, némia - his Ua) (her, their) mother.

(iaf) tJgiái - name of a clan.

(iay) iáy - aunt, uncle.

(iau) iáu - flying-fox, iáutJ - name of a clan.

(iaua) iauá - grown-up, big.

(iauuo) iauuo - personal name.

iáuo - kind of frog, iauófj - kind of yellow bead. (iauo)

(iao) iáo - on guard, tekiáo - break open, itiaoknl - mythological name.

(iu) iu - get away!, insium - mouse, iumurtt - name of a hilt.

(iuz) iui - kind of fruit.

(iua) iuárom - dry soil, mensiuá - whistling.

(iuaz) sifjgriuái - name of a village.

(iuo) pásiuo - hoe.

(io) ió - we, densió'fj - little finger, indio'fjéirunt - J ew's harp.

(ioia) nióiant - half.

(iou )ióu - flat.

3. Vowel-sequences beginning with e.

(et) préi - sow, bembéi'fj - mud, nárwrci - th ree, keikáo - narrow.

(eiu) méiu - name of a viIIage.

(ey) ia/,,'éy - crttmble, 'tjyatéy - tattoo-mark.

(eyi) teyi - jump.

(cyie) tcyien - kind of bird.

(eyo) meyosûo - self-conscious.

(ea) meánt - a field-name, iantbeápdi - name of a clan.

(eue) ntéue - forehead, béue - personal name.

(eua) kapeuám - kind of snake.

(euo) ntéuo - in front, kasbéllo'tj - kind of prey-bird.

4. Vowel-sequences beginning with y.

(yt) 'tjgetyitiu - we rub.

(yia) nensyiáb - family-group of the husband.

(yio) yîo - personal name, yiódi - name of a kind of tobacco.

(ye) tckye - charcoal, 1tsyéb - bandicoot, yé - meat, nantyene - to whom?

(yet) takryéi - quarrel, tyéi'fj - even out.

(yy) yy - rise again.

(ya) ya - select, yá - a field-name, kamsyári - mythologie al name.

(yua) yllá - for to seek.

(yue) yué - for to wave.

5. Vowel-sequences beginning with a.

(at) bái - spiral, kaiteró - outside, práisi - charm, magie.

(ait) káiin - cloth.

(aia) daiáb - fin, uansáia - kind of white bead.

(aiao) kaiáo - personal name.

(aio) ndaió - mother, haió - kangaroo.

(ae) dáe - smaII, benaeskáru - a field-name.

(ay) dáy'tj - hard, káy - a personal name.

(aye) háye - red pepper, ráyc - a personal name.

(ayei) tayéi - unearth.

(au) kenáu - sitting, sáum - kind of tree.

(aue) dauém - insolent.

(aue~1 sundauéif3 - kind of bird.

(auy) kauydu - kind of bird, traf3káuy - kind of small bird.

(aua) tauá - look back, bauakróf3 - mythologieal name.

(aua~1 tauái - wooden spoon.

kauáe - select. (auae)

(auao) kauáo - friar bird.

(skiá) tauue - joint (burst of laughter). (auue)

(auuo) kauuo - sky, hal/uo - personal name.

(auo) mindauó - kind of small shell, nauóf3 - light, clear, táuo - kind of green or bltte bead.

(ao) kráo - sweep, maokri - mythologieal name.

(aoi) dekaóitiu - we bind together, kraóikam - they demolished.

6. Vowel·sequences beginnlng with u.

(u~1

hui - ow! 0 dear!, uib - kind of root-erop, kuisu - earthquake, kuirób - lightning.

(uie) uaruiéri - mythologieal name.

(uia) kuiám - time of the day, uia - kind of tree.

(uio) uió - personal name.

demue - stone, takuém - crooked, uendf - tomorrow, (ue)

temakué - kind of vegetabie.

(ue~) iakuéi - mountain apple (Eugenia), te1'jguéif3 - belly.

(ueia) ueiá1'j - kind of sm all parrot, lory.

uéy - name of a (mythologieal) village. (uey)

(uye) (dt) kekuye - shrub.

(ua) uáro1'j - nail, banéif3guaf3 - spider, kebuá - morning, tabua - source.

(um) uái - sun, 1'jguáif3 - turbid, uaipuá - worm.

uaiuári - mythological name. (uaiua)

(uae) kuáe - wound, kuáebu - field-name.

uáu - rasp, menduáu - kind of bird. (uau)

(uauy) uauy - take along.

1'jgruáo - string (leaves). (uao)

(uu) UU1'j - fan.

(uuo) uuo - thing, goods, uuó - for to plant, dibble.

(uuou) uuóu - for to pad die.

(u 0) kamtuo - cheek, uó - bird's nest, tákuo - shell, iáf3uo1'j - personal name.

(uoi) uóitiu - we row, tuóikam - they cut down. (uou) kuóu - faded, withered, nembruóufj - Nimboran, uoupri - mythological name.

7. Vowel·sequences beginning with o.

(Ot) dói - money. (oit) iafjgodemóiib - dwarf. (oia) demoiáku - war-medicine, maroiáb - name of a garden. (oa) oá - name of a river, iroá - ulcer, sare, kontroási - fieldname. (oai) tamtoái - kind of bamboo, moáib - name of a river. (ou) póu - blow, tróllfj - bud, sprout, nimbroltfj - squatting. (oue) próuem - pick-axe. (oua) brouári - mythological name.

VI. CONSONANT·SEQUENCES

1. The mutual comblnabillty of consonants.

The mutual combinability of the consonant-phonemes is much more limited than that of the vowel-phonemes. With some consonants only a few combinations occur, whereas others, e.g. mand n appear to have more possibilities. Concerning the occurrence or non-occurrence of consonant-sequences there are only three general rules, applying to all consonants. These rules are:

la a consonant-sequence can never be word-final.

20 sequences of more than three consonants do not occur; the only exception is hngr (see below, § 13).23

30 a sequence of two identical consonants does not occur. Consequently in all polymorphematic words, in which such a sequence could he expected on account of the constituent morphemes, only one consonant is found (for instances of this see Part Two).

As with these three negative rules not everything is said, we still have to survey the various consonant-sequences found. They will be arranged under the heading of the first consonant.

2. Consonant·sequences beginnlng with p.

IJ can be immediately followed by t, k, r, or s.

pt occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. péptu - I peel.

pk occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. pripkum - she threw.

pl~r occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. kyéPkresántum - they two wave from there to here.

pr occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. próufj - splinter, uáiprom - kingfisher.

pr may be immediately preceded by m (see § 4) or by s (see § 12).

ps occurs only word-medially, mainly in verb-forms, e.g. brupsáke - you folded there, iapsenáfj - name of a clan.

psk OCCl1rs only word-medially, mainly in verb-forms, e.g. kipskátam - he beats there repeatedly, kupskifj - heart.

3. Consonant·sequences beglnnlng with b.

b can be immediately followed byany other consonant, except por g.

bm occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. pribmambetám - you and I throw up from here.

bt occurs only word-medially in verb-fonns; preferably it is replaced by pt, e.g. brubte - you fold (more freql1ently: brupte).

bd occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. besibdu - I will bend.

bn occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. pybnákam - he pricked far away.

bk occurs only word-medially in verb-forms and is preferably replaced by pk, e.g. pybkum - she pricked (more frequently: pYPkum).

bfj occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. Pébfjáke - you peeled below.

br occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. brob - sweet, bebruibám - heron.

br can be immediately preceded by m (see § 4).

bs occurs only word-medially in verb-forms; it is preferably replaced by ps, e.g. kibsáku - I hit there (more frequently: kiPsáku).

bh occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. pybháre - you will prick there.

4. Consonant·sequences beginnlng with m.

m can be immediately followed by any other consonant.

PHONOLOGY 33 Verh. dl. 44 3

mp occurs only word-medially, e.g. némpo - day af ter tomorrow, pempéif3 - trembIe.

mpr occurs only word-medially, e.g. suámprif3 - ant, pempriáf3 - sprawl.

mb occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. mbáreif3 - loin-c1oth, nembîe - wind.

mbr occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. mbrif3 - hinterland, mámbrob - tongue.

mt occurs only word-medially, e.g. kamtuo - cheek, tamtoái - kind of bamboo.

md occurs only word-media1ly, e.g. demamdó - grandchild, sámdu - I sha11 put into.

mn occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. dámnákam - he ate far away.

mk occurs only word-medially, mainly in verb-forms, e.g. krebémku • a field-name, dámku - late.

mkr occurs only word-media1ly in verb-forms, e.g. k}'lnkrekátam - they will bum repeatedly.

mg occurs only word-media1ly, mainly in verb-forms, e.g. f3guátemgétimhe is biting repeatedly, damgóu - yawn.

mf3 occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. dámf3áku - late below.

mf3g occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, e.g. priptemf3géki - you were throwing repeatedly below.

mr occurs only word-medially, mainly in verb-forms, e.g. dámratum - it is eaten, amrika - America, American.

ms occurs only word-medially, e.g. demsif3 - uncooked, iámsof3 - kind of fruit (artocarpus integra).

mst occurs only word-medially, e.g. i11lstUm - name of a village.

msk occurs only word-media1ly in verb-forms, e.g. dámskákam - he ate there repeatedly.

mh occurs only word-medially in polymorphematic words, e.g. dámháru -

I will eat there, f3ámho - to me, to us.

5. Consonant·sequences beginning with t.

t can be immediately followed only b~ r.

tr occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. traf3 - call, keitré - giant taro.

tr can be immediate1y preceded by n (see § 7).

6. Consonant·sequences beglnnlng wUh d.

d ean be immediately followed only by r.

dr occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. dróu - bath, sukudréi - kind of bird.

dr can be immediately preceded by n (see § 7).

7. Consonant·sequences beglnnlng wlth n.

n ean be immediately followed by t, d, or s.

nt occurs only word-media11y, e.g. nánteku - day before yeLterday, mentttJ - algae.

ntr occurs only word-medially, e.g. dantrtt - kind of tree, kontroási - a field-name.

nd occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. ndop - aching, kandóutJ - hip.

ndr occurs only word-medially, e.g. méndro - flag.

ns occurs only word-medially, e.g. densiátJ - noon, mensue - nose.

nsk occurs only word-medially, e.g. nénsllitJ - older brother, inskuo - fowling-arrow.

nsr occurs only word-medially, e.g. insritJ - frown.

8. Consonant·sequences beglnnlng wlth k.

k ean be immediately followed only by r.

kr occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. krym - noise, kakrá - dead.

kr can be immediately preceded by p (see § 2), by m (see § 4), by tJ (see § 10), and by s (see § 12).

9. Consonant·sequences beglnnlng wlth g.

g can be immedi3itely followed by r, but as this occurs only if the g is immediately preceded by tJ, this case will be mentioned in the next §.

10. Consonant·sequences beglnnlng wlth 13.

tJ can be immediately followed by any other consonant except m.

tJp occurs only word-medially in verb-forms, but is is preferably replaced by mp, e.g. tJgrutJpu - I hung up (more frequently: tJgrumpu). tJb occurs only word-medially in verb-forms. Preferably it is replaced by mb, e.g. fjgrufjbáru - I will hang up above (more frequently: fjgrumbáru).

fjt occurs only word-medially in verb-forms; it is preferably replaced by nt, e.g. fjgrufjtu - I hang up (more frequently: fjgruntu).

fjd occurs only word-medially in verb-forms and is preferably replaced by nd, e.g. fjgrufjdu - I will hang up (more frequently: fjgrundu).

fjn occurs only word-medially, e.g. mifjnánteku - three days ago.

fjk occurs only word-medially, e.g. hem'rjkenó - what?, néfjki - his wife. fjkr occurs only word-medially, e.g. uáfjkru - a field-name.

fjg occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. fjgéifj - forget, dáfjgu - near.

fjg can be immedirutely preceded by m (see § 4) or by h (see § 13). fjgr occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. fjgrafj - bumble-fly, dUfjgrifj - frog.

fjgr can be immediately preceded by h (see § 13).

fjr occurs only word-medially, e.g. namáfjreb - shallow, suátyátu - I pour upon him.

fjS occurs only word-medially in verb-forms; it is preferably replaced by ns, e.g. fjgrufjsáru - I will hang up there (more frequently: fjgrunsáru).

fjSk occurs only word-medially in verb-forms; preferably it is replaced by nsll, e.g. tefjgáfjskátam - he knocks there repeatedly (more frequently: tefjgánskátam).

fjh occurs only word-medially 10 verb-forms, e.g. tefjgáfjhákam - he knocked there.

11. Consonant·sequences beginnlng with r.

r can be immediately followed by m, t, or n. None of these sequences occurs very frequently.

rm occurs only word-medially, e.g. sarmái - name of a village.

rt occurs only word-medially, e.g. kuartakuém - kind of grass.

rn occurs only word-medially, e.g. ornánifj - sweet-potato.

12. Consonant-sequences beginning with 8.

scan be immediately followed by p, b, m, t, n, or k. It may immediately precede r, but only if the sis immediately preceded by n (see § 7).

sp occurs only word-initially, e.g. spóu - unloosen.

spr occurs only word-initially, e.g. sprofj - name of a river.

sb occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. sbi - sago-basket, kasbéuofJ - kind of big prey-bird.

sm occurs only word-medially, e.g. kasmándo - name of a clan.

st occurs only word-medially, e.g. Pésta - feast (loan-word).

st ean be immediately preceded by m (see § 4).

sn occurs only word-initially, e.g. sne - breathless, panting, sno - name of an abandoned village.

sk occurs word-initially and word-medially, e.g. skom - bread-fruit, yésku - female cuscus.

sk can be immediately preceded by p (see § 2), by m (see § 4), by n see § 7), or by fJ (see § 10).

skr occurs only word-initially, e.g. skréy - shake.

sr occurs only if n immediately precedes (see § 7).

13. Consonant·sequences beginnlng wUh h.

h ean be immediately followed by n, fJ, or r (but cf. what was said about this in Ch. IV, § 12). Consonant-sequences beginning with h occur only word-initially.

hno e.g. hnafJ - louse, hnum - know.

hfJ, e.g. hfJári - bird of paradise.

hfJg, e.g. hfJgi - name of a village.

hfJgr, e.g. hfJgri - name of a village.

hr, e.g. hrap - shadow, hri - descend.

14. Extra-systematical consonant·sequence.

In Ch. 11, § 3, is discussed the occurrence - under very limited conditions - of extra-systematical phonemes. Under similar conditions, viz. only in an interjection, a consonant-sequence is found as the only constituent of a word: st - a cry for shooing away dogs or poultry. As here the s is sustained longer than usual, (s: t) would he a more accurate spelling.

vu. THE ACCENT

1. Description of the accent.

The accent is a quality of vowels and consists of a pitch, higher than that of the other vowel(s) of the same word, usually combined with a higher degree of loudness (stress). As this higher degree of loudness is not always heard, it apparently is less essential than tbe high pitch is, but the stress is observabIe in the majority of cases and therefore it must be mentioned here.

The symbol we use for the accent in writing is an acute (') over the vowel that has the accent.

Most words have one and only one accent; exceptions to this mIe wiII be discussed separately below. If a word contains only one vowe1, this vowe1 can he sairl to have an accent, although this only appears from comparison with the pitch (and loudness) of the va wels of surrounding words, if any.24 So in a word there usually is one vowel, and that always the same, which has the accent. However, there is no rule by which the pI ace of the accent in all words is determined. 25

2. The structural function of the accent.

Tbe structural function of the accent includes:

10 dis tin c t i vev a I u e f 0 r wor d s. This only applies to plurivocalic words, because in these the place of the accent is as distinctive as the character and order of the constituent phonemes are. This distinctive value is, once more, most clearly demonstrated by minimal pairs. in this case pairs of words consisting of the same phonemes in the same order but different in the place of their accent. Out of the - relatively few - cases of such minimal pairs we give fhe following instances:

Me - hand kié - time

mére - ourse1ves meré - kind of fruit

sie - citronella grass sié - twist

tébu - silent tebu - (cigarette-)stub.

20 dis tin g u i s h i n g t h e wor das s u c h. As the place of the accent in the word-farm is not determined by the word-foml itself, the accent can not act as a real border-marker. But from the number of accentuated vowe1s in an utterance the hearer obtains an idea of the number of words in the utterance. The contributiol1 made by the accent to the recognition of the number of words is impaired by the existence of words, having two accents, and of words, having na accent, but not as seriously as one might expect hecause Ü'f the polymorphematic character of the former and the small number and limited possibilities of combination (syntactical valence) of the latter.26

3° th e rol epI a y e d b y th e ac c ent in the intoThis will be nat ion a I pat ter n sof wor d - g rou p s. discussed in the description of the syntax.

3. Words havlng two lWCents.

The words which have two accented vowels may he c1assified in three groups:

1 ° ver b - f 0 r m s. Most verb-forms have one accent on a vowel of the root-morpheme and one on avowel Ü'f some other morpheme.27 The first accent, which we call sec 0' n dar y accent, consists of a pitch which is less high than th at of the second, which we call the p r i mar y accent; but primary and secondary accent may change places. 28 The place of the accents in verb-forms will he discussed in the morphological part of our description. In our writing system we indicate both accents in the same way, e.g. prfpsántam - he throws from there to here.

2° pro per nam e s. Some proper names, having more than two vowe1s, may have - apart from the fixed, primary, accent a secondary accent on a certain vowe1, preceding the vowel which has the primary accent. In these cases the two accents are nO't interchangeable. The secondary accent may he absent; this usually i'S the case in fast speech. In writing, this secondary accent will he indicated with a grave accent (~ ), e.g. masàtekáte - mythological name, hàmofjgreintyfj - a field-name, hàmongráfj - name of a village.

3° th e wor d s á m s á m. In this word, which means "slow, in order", the two vowe1s are equally accentuated so that forma1ly it corresponds with a repeated word like kendó kendó - quick (!). But sámsám C:lJn not he caJled such a repeated word, as a simple form sam does not occur. 29

It may he said that all words, having two accents, constitute border cases between s-ingle words and groups, consisting of two separate words. This view is supported by the fact that consonant-sequences, which are not found e1sewhere, occur in many such words as morphemejunction-markers (see eh. VI, §§ 2, 3, 4 and 10). They are treated here as words because of their inseparability.

4. Words without an accent.

Some words, which are, syntactically, c1ose1y connected with the immediaJtely preceding or following word, do not have an accent. As the resulting word-group constitutes a border-case between one word and two words, the accentless words may be called "sub-words".30 These sub-words are:

pe, the accentless alternant 31 of po - must, can. pe is c10sely connected with the immediately following word, e.g. no pe tapóu - he must (can) help, pe to - it must (can) indeed !.

me, tbe accentless alternant of mái - al ready. It is c10sely conl1ected with the immediately following word, e.g. me skifj - al ready ripe, me iám - al ready firnshed.

ne - to, and its alternants : fje, me, and nié. These may he without accent and then constitllte a c1ose-knit group with the immediately preceding word; e.g. iamó ne - to tbe bouse, dekám ne or deká11l me - -to tbe ladder, kellái ne or kenái nie - upward, mendifj ne or mendifj 'Je - to the wall.

Attention must be drawn to the fact thai in this case the accentless sub-words are free variants of normally accented forms.

fa, the accentless alternant of to - indeed. It is c10sely connected with tbe immediately preceding word, e.g. iám fa - finished!.

VID. WORD·ALTERNANTS

1. Partly homophonous synonyms.

A number of word-pairs are found, the members of which are sIightly different in form but identical in meaning, in other words: partly homophonous synonyms. Those cases of partly homophonous synonyms, which do not show any systematical feature, either in their formal differences, or in the use of their members, need not be discussed here, as there is no connection 32 between their resemblance of their forms and the identity of their meaning. They will be found in the dictionary. J ust by way of illustmtion, some examples are given here:

dekuám and rekuám - meat neikáo and keikáo - narrow bróut3ye and bróu13gye - cuscus meré and méro - kind of red dye minie and mft3gie - before, formerly 13getá13 and t3getám - a mythological naJl11e net3gye and rCfjgye - show kieténdy and skieténdy - all, always rebye and bebye - kind of venomous snake.

The remaining cases, which are discussed in this chapter, fall into three groups :

1 ° spe e d - a I ter n a n t s. These are pairs of words one member of which is used in fast speech only.

2° con dit ion e d a I ter n a n t s. These are pairs of words of which one memher occurs only in a certain syntactical or phonemical environment.

3° fr e e a I ter n a n t s. In these pairs of words the members do not show any regularity in their use but their formal differences are found in more than one case and so they are parallel in their formal eharacteristics.

2. Speed·altemants.

In fast speech words containing four or more vowels may he replaced by forms differing from them in the absence of one or more vowe1s. In the shorter form, which we eall a 11 e g r 0 alt e rna n t, only those vowels may be absent which in the fuller form, for which we use the term I ent 0 alt er n a n t, 33 have no accent and are not immediately followed by another vowel. The possibility of the formation of allegro alternants is given by the number of V'owels in a word. It is a productive operation, in contradistinction to the cases to be discussed in § 3 and § 4. Among those words who se form admits of the formation of a!1legro alternants, many verb-fonns a.re found, because of their complicated morphological structure, e.g. pribn13gátu, allegro fonn of pribene13gátu - Ithrow repeatedly from below to above; priPkrebdu, allegro alternant of pripkrebedu - we two will throw up from here. Tbe first example shows that in allegro alternan!s consonantclusters may occur which are never found in lento forms.

3. Conditloned word-alternants.

Conditioned alternants occur only under certain conditions ; these conditions are either syntactical environment or phonemical environment.

Syntactical environment in the fonn of close synl\:actic connection with an immediately following word is the condition for the occurrence of

me, alternant of mái - already (see Ch. VII, § 4). mái is not possiblt> in the same position.

pe, altemant of po - can, must (see Ch. VII, § 4). In the same position po is also possi1ble, so the variation is free, although there is some preference for pe.

Syntactical environment in the fonn of close syntactic connection with tbe immediately preceding word is the condition for the occurrenee of:

ta, free variant of to - indeed (see Ch. VII, § 4).

Phol1emically conditioned, i.e. conditiol1ed by the phonemes of the immediately precedil1g word, is the occurrence of:

dié, alternant of de - of. dié occurs, as a free variant, only if the immediately preceding word has final i, e.g. ki dié (or ki de) - of the woman, uái dié (or uái de) - of the sun.

ge and gué, altemants of be - as t~. ge and gllé occur, as free variants of be, only if the immediately preceding word has a final 13 or a final ti which is immediate1y preceded by a vowel, e.g. reráu ge, reráu gué, or reráu be - as to the gnashing; ta13gá13 ge, ta13gá13 gué, or ta13gá13 be - as to the cord.

nié, me, and 13e, free variants of ne - t~.

nié (or nie) may occur only if the immediately preceding word has final i.

me may occur only if the immediately preceding word has final m. l3e occurs only if the immediately preceding word has final 13.

For examples see eh. VII, § 4.

4. Free a1temants.

Among the free alternants, as defined in § 1, we reckon the following:

a. Those with interchange of word-initial hand s, enumerated in eh. IV, § 12.

b. Those with interchange of word-initia! hand se-. These are: hrenté and seremé - song; hremái and seremái - name of a village.

c. Those with interchange of word-initial hand si-. These are: hl3gri and sil3gri - name of a village, hl3griuái and sil3griuái - name of a village, hl3gi and sil3gi - nanle of a former village.

d. Those with interchange of word-final a and a. These are:

1 ° all words having final a or a, immediately preceded by an 11 having an accent, e.g. haprzta and haprûa - betel-vi ne (Piper bede), kemua and keuttta - pit.

2° kebó and kebá - string-bag.

3° the adapted loan-words média and lIlédia - tabIe, and tika and tika - mat (see eh. IX, § 3).

For ta, alternant of ta, see § 3 and also eh. VII, § 4.

e. Those with interchange of a and e. These are: kab i and kebi - traditional feast,34 1járe and l3ére - myself, ourselves, báre and bére - yourself, náre and nére - himse1f, herself, itself, máre and mére - ourse1ves, saremái and seremái - name of a village, nambruól3 and nembruól3 - Nimboran.

f. Those with interchange of i anel nil. These are: handiál3 and handál3 - try, inióiam and nióiam - half, il3giámbu and il3gámbu - head, isiu and im - shake, máise (bu J and máse (bu J - saliva, práisi and prási - chann, magic, néimbu and némbu - name of a river, indiof3gráf3 and ndiof3gráf3 - name of a clan, iyé and yé - wave, beckon, maniym and manym - point, ,tip, iniéuo and niéuo - relative on one's mother's side, if3geniém, f3geniém, and if3geném - place-name, mif3gie and mif3ge - before.

g. Those with interchange of u and niI. These are: buásom and básom - stirring-rod, pestle, (hef3géif3J prentóuf3 and (he13géif3J prentóf3 - knife, Uf3gy and f3gy - drum, práu and pra - cross, puáe and páe - mutually, uf3guo and f3guo - disappear. h. Those with metathesis of r. These are: kakróu and krakóu - cover, hraké and hakré - kind of tree, hakrerym and hrakerym - name of a river. N eedless to say th at these lists may be incomplete.

IX. LOAN·WORDS

1. Foreign influence on Nimboran vocabulary.

In Nimboran, as in most languages, borrowing words from other languages is an important means for enriching the vocabulary. Especially in recent times, foreign cultural influence has been the cause of many words being borrowed. The most important lending language is the lingua franca, which is used - with some regional varian1:s - in the coastal areas of western N ew Guinea. This language we caU New Guinea Malay (NGM), for want of a better term. This NGM is not very much different from Bahasa Indonesia, the national language of Indonesia, so that in many cases the question, if a word was borrowed from NGM or from Indonesian, is utterly senseless. For words, borrowed by Nimboran from other languages - among which in the first place Dutch must be mentioned -, NGM of ten, but not always, served as an intermediary. As IndonesianjMalay was introduced in primary education already years ago, every Nimboranspeaker has a certain knowledge of this language and borrows words from it freely, not only in high-flown speech-making and in technical statements, but also in everyday conversation. Especially among the younger generaJtion, garnishing the language with Malay /1ndonesian words is an established custom, even in those cases in which original Nimboran words would he as good or even better.

2. Adapted and unadapted loan-words_

1t is not surprising that foreign words, used in Nimboran speech, of ten show fom1s which do not fit in with the Nimboran phonological system. 1ndeed, these words are still regarded as foreign. Therefore, they may he left out of our description and it also is not feasible to include them in a dictionary as their number is indefinite.

The case is different, if the form of a foreign word is adapted to the structure of Nimboran and so loses the outward characteristics of its origin. An examination of this process of adaptation may deepen our insight into the phonological structure of Nimboran and that is why a special chapter is devoted to loan-words and also why especially adapted forms receive attention.

As adaptation of foreign forms is a process, progressing in time, words in different Sltages of adaptation can be found at the same time. Even different stages of adaptation of the same word can occur simultaneously. Moreover, the process of adaptation may some1:imes go in different directions, sa that the result may be more than one adapted form. 1nstances of this will be found below.

3. Characterlstics of adapted loan-words.

The phonetic structure of a foreign word may be such that adaptation brings about only phonetic changes, i.e. the phonemes are actualized in the Nimboran way. This is the case with e.g.

benátj - thread (Mal. benang).35

térotj - egg-fruit (Solanum spp.). The NGM fom1 térong probably comes from Javanese, as the 1ndonesian word is terung.

bauátj - anion (Mal. ba'Wang).

káiin - cloth (Mal. kain).

pésta - feast (Indon. pésta, NGM fésta).

pePáia - pawpaw (Indon. pepaja).

pandái - shotgun, rifle. This word, originally Spanish, must have come from one of the languages of eastern Indonesia. The final i makes it probable that the Biak language served as an intermediary.

spátu, sepátu - shoe. Of these two forms, probably the former is NGM spatu and the latter Indon. sepatu.36

kUap - hook (Mal. kitab).37

kásbi - manioc (NGM kasbf).

The u of Mal. words is of ten replaced by Nimboran y. This may he due to the phonetic difference between rounded Mal. u and the unrounded u of Nimboran. E.g. sS/sy - milk (Mal. susu).

Maybe in the same circumstance the cause is to be found of the change of 0 of same Mal. words into u, e.g. prup - cork (NGM prop). But the reverse is also found, e.g. bá'Jko - bank (Mal. bangku).

Change of k into g is found in semá'Jga - watermeIon (Citrullus vulgaris) (Mal. semangka).

The lamino-alveolars are usually "analysed" to apico-dentals plus following i, e.g.

kásia'J - legume (Mal. katjang).

siepátu - shoe (NGM tjepatu).

ensié - sir (used to address a Chinese) NGM éntjé, Indon. entjik).

média, médio - table (Mal. medja).

(undy) rádio - kind of banana (Mal. (pisang) radja).

bánia - many (Mal. banjak).

minia (but also mina) - oil (Mal. minjak).

The last two examples show that original final k is lost. This appears to be the rule, e.g. bre - tin (Dutch blik); bébe - duck (Mal. bébék).

Word-final s or tof foreign words is usually retained, a final e being added, e.g.

káse - coffin (NGM kas, from Dutch kast).

kertáse, kratáse - paper (Mal. kertas).

tomáte, temáte - tomato (Dutch tomaat).

Exceptional are

addition of final i in nanási - pine-apple (Mal. nanas); IOS5 of final s in bra - rice (NGM bras);

loss of final t in dói - money (Mal. duit). 1t is possible that these th ree words did not come directly from MaL, so that some other language, which served as an intermediary, is responsible for the irregularity of the changes.

Final n of foreign words usually becomes 13, e.g.

ámbot,3 - Ambon, Ambonese, from Ambon, niPut,3 - Japan, Japanese, from Nipon, mentimut,3 - cucumber (Indon. mentimun),38 sábut,3, but also sábun - soap (Mal. sabun). Final r is lost through adaptation, e.g. háma - ham mer (Dutch hamer), émbe - 1ndonesian, Asian (Biak amber - non-white foreigner), uáke - kind of song (Bonggo waker),39 róbo - tencents piece (NGM lopor), tiko, tika - mat (Mal. tikar), dámo - resin (Mal. damar). Word-initial or word-medial 1 becomes r, e.g. rábu - pumpkin (Mal. labu), surit,3 - flute (Mal. suling), merite - 5O'1d!ier (Mal. melitér, from Dutch militair), bránda - Dutch (NGM Blanda). Word-final 1 is lost, except if immediately preceded by i or 0, as -il becomes -ie and -ol bec0111es -uo, e.g. répe - spoon (Dutch lepel), pinsie - pencil (Mal. pensi/), betuo - bottle (Mal. boto/) , pásiuo - pick (Mal. patjol).

Immediately hefore a stop a homorganic nasal may arise, e.g.

taringy - flour (Mal. terigu),

ngam - chewing-gum (Eng1ish gum).

temánte, tománte - tomato (Dutch tomaat or Mal. tomat).

Above we al ready came across the forms temáte and tOl1wte; In this case different ways af adaptation gave rise to four alternants.

In some cases the changes are less simple than those discussed above. tusé, used in the expression undûo tusé - cat, can he traced back to the word tusa which is found in eastern Indonesian languages, but nhis leaves unexplained the change of final a into c.40

The words 'fjgrotru and fjgratue both mean "tractor, bulldozer, road-grader". However, it is uncertain if the model was tractor or grader. I t is not heyond possibility that the two words blended into one.

Besides bendéra - flag (Mal. bendéra), an alternal1lt mhldro exists, which :is used part:icularly by the aged and is regarded as ridiculous by the young people, more versed in Malay. Likewise especiaHy used by the older people is arÉ'fjgy as an alternant of harimifj9u - week, Sunday (Mal. hari minggu).

There are more instances of adaption making one word out of what was originally two, as is the case in harimffjgu, e.g. tuá'fjgry - teacher (Mal. tuan guru - Mister teacher).

In same cases popular etymology caused formal deviations. So for "co-operative", instead of a form which could he expected frorn Mal. koprasi like koprási, the expres sion kym prási, literally meaning "coconut magic",41 came into use.

Of the two aIternant words for "maize", ièmbrokáse and èmberekáse, sorne people think the latter is more correct, as they interpret it with NGM ambéri kasi - foreigners gave it.42

PART TWO:

MORPHOLOGY

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Morphology: categories of form and meanlng.

Morphology is concerned with those words which show a partial similarity in form and in meaning, in so far as their partial differences in form and meaning show a systematic character. As there appears to be a good deal of misunderstanding with regard to this matter, we have to enter, at least, into the basic principles.

In many languages, including Nimboran, groups of words are found which show a partial similarity in their forms and also have a common element in their meanings, whereas each of these words can be opposed to one or more other words from which they are differentiated by precisely the same formal and semantic element. Such groups we caU mor ph ol 0 g i cal cat ego r i e s.l The formal feature(s), shared by the members of a category, need not be absolutely uniform but may show some variation, provided that this variation is defined by the phonemical shape of the word and, therefore, is predictable. If differences are found which are unpredictable, the words in question do not belong to one category.

2. Morphemes.

The formal characteristics, marking words as members of a category, we caU mor p hem e s. The use of this term is open to objections, as in many linguistic publications it is used in a meaning which we do not want to attach to it, viz. the meaning of a basic structural unit.

In this matter we share Uhlenbeck's view, that "a morpheme is merely a moment in a word".2 Therefore, we would prefer to speak of "formal features marking members of a morphological category as such". But this would be a long-winded and cumbersome formula and so we will use the existing word "morpheme". However, we do this only with emphatic reference to our definition and without attaching to the term the idea of an independent linguistic unit.3

3. Morphologiea! categories and syntactie valence.

Having mentioned the semantic element that is common to the members of a category, we now have to state this view more fully. For in certain cases the members of a category are distinguished from correlated words not so much by an element of meaning as by a difference in syntactic val e n c e.4 By this term is meant: systematic combinability with other words; e.g., the English words sings and singer (in: The man sings a song and The man is a good singer) have different syntactic valence (and therefore are not interchangeable). As a common syntactic valence and a common element of meaning do not exclude each other - the latter is even usually found in combination with the former -, we may say that members of a category have in common: an element of form + an element of meaning andjor syntactic valence.

4. Morphologiea! sets. Lexiea! and categorie meaning.

W ords, belonging to different morphological categories but corresponding with each other in form and meaning, constitute a m 0 rp hol 0 g i c a I set. The formal feature they have in common is a r oot - mor p hem e. 5 The relations between members of a morphological set and those between members of a category are across each other:

The semantic feature shared by the members of a morphological set we caU the 1 e x i cal me a n i n g; its description belongs to the dictionary.6 Tbe sen1antic feature that is common to aU members of a morpbological category we caU the cat ego r i c m e a n ing. A fair statement of a categoric meaning is of ten far from being a simple matter, as the lexical meaning of tbe words in question may enter largely into tbe establishment of tbe categoric meaning. The short formulas we will use for indicating the categories are only meant as practical labels. 7 Tbe term "categorie meaning" will be used here for the tota!, nonformal, value of membership of a category and so will also include the concept ion of syntactic valence, discussed in the preceding §. To avoid any misunderstanding, it must be added that the meaning of a po!ymorphematic word can not be said to be the sum total of lexica! meaning plus categorie meaning(s); but these meanings are somehow represented in the total meaning of the word.

5. Zero morphemes.

As has been said before, the members of a morphological category show a conmlOn forma! feature. This forma! feature becomes apparent from the comparison with morphologicaUy re1ated words (co-members of morphological sets), belonging to other categories, e.g., English 'luorker vs. worked, walker vs. walked, etc. In this example there is an opposition between words baving one categoric morpheme (-er) and words with a different categorie morpheme.

However, in many cases the formal opposition is found in the presence of a certain fort11al feature in the one case and its absence in the other; e.g., English work and walk as opposed to working and walking. In such cases we may speak of a ze rom 0 r p hem e with those words which are characterized by the absence of a certain formal feature. It is clear that this is just another way of saying that a certain element of form is absent and that this absence determines the place of the word, or words, in question within the morphological framework of the language.

In our discussion of Nimboran morphology we will time and again come across cases which can be described with the term zero morpheme. In some cases we will even have to speak of zero root-morpheme.

6. Productivity.

A morphological category may be productive or improductive. If a category is improductive, new members can not normaIly be added, and, consequently, its members can be enumerated.

Productive categories, however, have no fixed number of members; they represent a procédé that may be extended over ever more words. Such productive procédés provide a speaker with the morphological means for forming new words, no matter wether he has heard these words being used by other speakers or not. Investigating the ways in which this is performed is the main subject of descriptive morphology.8

7. The limlts of producttvtty.

What was said about the relative importance of productive categories in a morphological description does not mean that improductive categories could be disregarded. Improductive categories deserve fuIl attention, first, because they meet the important criterion of categoric relations,9 second, because of the effect manyof them have on productive categories. For the existence of improductive categories is the chief barrier to unlimited application of productive procédés, as in the majority of cases a member of a productive category is not used, if its semantic "place" is occupied by a member of an improductive category. An improductive category can block the extension of a productive one only if both have the same categoric meaning.

In some cases a word is found having the same effect as a member of un improductive category. Such a word shows the same semantic relationship to some other word - to which it mayor may not be partIy similar in shape - as is found between a member of a productive category and a corresponding word belonging to some other category, whereas the same difference in form is not found in combination with the same difference in meaning with any other pair of words. As such blo c k a din g wor d s mark the boundary of the sphere of operation of the productive categories in the same way as blo c k a din g cat ego r i e s, we have to mention them in our morphological description.

No mention will be made of those cases in which a lexical meaning is incompatible with a categoric meaning. Such forms do not normally occur, but, at any rate, they are conceivable.

Between productive categories on the one si de and semantically equivalent improductive categories (and ditto blockading words) on the other si de a certain tension exists. In the case of Nimboran, this is apparent from the fact that born speakers of the language who lived outside their own community for a long time, say several years, display a tendancy to substitute (new) members of productive categories for members of improductive categories or blockading words. In this way, the character of the productive categories is clearly demonstrated.

8. Competitive forms.

But even by those people who speak their language correctIy members of productive categories are sometimes used side by si de with words belonging to improductive categories without any difference of use or meaning. Then the categories to which these words belong are in co m pet 1 t 10 n. OccasionaIly, competition is found between improductive categories.

9. Morphological systems and their internal organlzation.

If morphological categories contain words belonging to the same morphological sets, there is a certain relationship between these categories. Such mutually related categories constitute a mor p h olog i c a I s y s tem. A morphological system may consist of many categories.

If categories, belonging to the same system, show opposition and, therefore, are mutually exclusive within one word, they are of the same 0 r der; categories, not showing opposition, are of different order. A word may be a member of more than one category but never belongs to two (or more) categories of the same order.

10. Suppletion.

In a few cases, a morphological set has members in only some of the categories of a system, another set, having the same lexical meaning, being found in the rest of the categories, so that these two sets replace each other in part of the categories. For such cases of mutually blockading morphological sets we tlse the term s u p P let ion.

ll. THE PRODUCTIVE CATEGORIES OF THE VERB·SYSTEM

1. Introduction.

The only extensive morphological system found in the Nimboran language is the verb-system.1 0 lts productive categories will he described at length in this chapter. The improductive categories and the blockading words playing a part in this system will be discussed in Ch. III and Ch. IV.

2. The categories of the Flrst Penon and of the Second Person. The order of the categories of the Actor.

If we compare the following words:

fjguádu - I will bite, tefjgáfjku - I knocked, fjguátu - I bite, fjgrundu - I will hang up, fjguáku - I bit, fjgruntu - I hang up, bekádu - I will kick, fjgrufjku - I hung up, bekátu - I kick, uódu - I will dibble, bekáku - I kicked, uótu - I dibble, tet3gándu - I will knock, uóku - I dibbled, tefjgántu - I knock,

with these:

fjguáde - you will bite, tefjgáfjlle - you knocked, fjguáte - you bite, fjgrunde - you will hang up,

we see that each word of the first group can be put si de by si de with one of the second group, each of these pairs showing the same difference in form (final u vs. final e) and the same difference in meaning. The partial difference in meaning, appearing from the use of the words "I" and "you" in the translation, can be described more specifically as follows: in one case - that of the words having final u - the action 11 is attributed to the speaker as the actor; in the other case - that of the words having final e - the action is attributed to a singl1lar person addressed, as the actor.

More examples can be found ad libitum; further investigation shows that the nl1mber of such forms is, in principle, l1nlimited. V,r e have to do with prodl1ctive categories whose members are characterized by the formal e1ements (morphemes) -u and -e respectively. We caU them the category of the First Person (singular) and the category of the Second Person (singular).

They appear to be in opposition and are mutl1aUy exclusive; so they are of the same order which we will caU the order of the Actor categories.

3. The category of the Thlrd Person Mascullne.

If we compare the words cited in § 2 with the foUowing:

fjguádam - he wiU bite, tCfjgáfjkam - he knocked, fjguátam - he bites, fjgrundan~ - he will hang up, bekádam - he will kick, tJgrttfjkam - he hung up, uódam - he will dibble, uótam - he dibbles, tefjgándam - he will knock, uókam - he dibbled,

fjguálwm - he bit,

tJgruntam - he hangs up,

bekátam - he kicks,

bekákam - he kicked,

tefjgántam - he knocks, we meet with members of another productive category, the members of which are marked by the morpheme -am. The categorie meaning is: the action is attributed to a singular male being, not identical with the speaker or the person(s) adressed.

This category is in opposition with the two categories, already mentioned, and so is also of the order of the Actor categories. We eaU it the category of the Third Person Masculine.

4. The category of the Thlrd Person NeutraI.

If we compare the words, given in § 2 and § 3, with the foUowing:

1jguádum - she (it) will bite, te1jgá1jkum - she (it) knocked, 1jguátum - she (it) bites, 1jgrundum - she (it) will hang up, 1jguákum - she (it) bit, 1jgrûntu11t - she (it) hangs up, bekádum - she (it) will kick, 1jgru1jku11t - she (it) hung up, bekátum - she (it) kicks, uódum - she (it) will dibble, bekákum - she (it) kicked, uótum - she (it) dibbles, te1jgándum - she (it) will knoek, uókum - she (it) dibbled, te1jgántum - she (it) knocks,

we find them to be members of another productive category which has the morpheme -um and the categorie meaning of the attribution of the action to a singular actor, which is not of male sex and not identical with either the speaker or the person addressed. We eaU this the category of the Third Person Neutral. It is found to be in opposition with the categories be10nging to the order of the Actor categories, so it is of that same order.

5. The categorles of Future, Present, and Past.

The verb-forms, given in the §§ 2 to 4, show other oppositions than those already discussed, if we arrange them as foUows:

1jguádam - he will bite, 1jguádu - I will bite, 1jguáde - you will bite, 1jguádum - she (it) will bite,

as opposed to:

1jgllátam - he bites, 1jguátu - I bite, 1jguáte - you bite, 1jguátu11t - she (it) bites, and also to: tJguáku - I bit, tJguákam - he bit, tJguáke - you bit, tJguákum - she (it) bit. In the same way: bekádu - I will kick, bekádam - he will kick, bekáde - you will kick, bekádum - she (it) will kick, are found in opposition with : bekátu - I kick, bekátam - he kicks, bekáte - you kick, bekátum - she (it) kicks, and with: bekáku - I kicked, bekákam - he kicked, bekáke - you kicked, bekákum - she (it) kicked.

The same can be done with the rest of the given verb-forms. In this way, it appears that forms, having a formal element -dimmediately preceding the Actor morpheme and having as part of their meaning "the action will take place in the future, or begins in the present and will continue in the future, or takes place in the present and is directed towards the future", are opposed to forms which do not have this semantic element and are characterized by having -tor -kinstead of the -d-. The words characterized by the morpheme -dconstitute a productive category which we caU the category of the Future.

Further study of the use of Future forms shows that the given formula of the categorie meaning is not broad enough. Because forms of the Future category are of ten used to indicate that the actor intends or wants to perform the action, or that the speaker wants the action to take place. In the latter case, the meaning may be a command or a request.

The words, characterized by the morpheme -twhich immediately precedes the Actor morpheme, aU show the semantic element "the action takes place in the present or is completed in the present". They constitute a category which, again, appears to be productive. This we caU the category of the Present.

Sometimes, members of the Present category are also used when, strictly speaking, the action does not relate to the present, or is not limited to the present. For Present forms are used in all those cases in which the time of the action is unimportant or is left out of account (in general statements and the like). So it might be said that, semantically, this category is characterized by the absence of a certain element of meaning and its members have reference to actions, not explicitly mentioned as belonging to either the future or the past.

The fact that many Present forms are formally characterized by a zero morpheme - as we shall see later on - may be said to be 111 accordance with this.

The words which are characterized by the morpheme -khave in common the semantic feature "the action took pi ace in the past". They appear to constitute a productive category which we call the category of the Past.

The categories of Present, Past, and Futttre are of the same order. This we call the order of the categories of Tense. That this order is different from that of the Actor categories appears from the fact th at all verb-forms, given so far, belong to an Actor category as weIl as to a Tense category.

6. The category of the Recent Past.

The Tense forms discussed in the preceding Section can be opposed to still other forms, e.g. f3guádu, f3gllátll, and f3guáku to f3g11ápu - I bit. This word is formally characterized by the morpheme -p-, preceding the Actor morpheme, and its meaning shows the feature "the action took place in the past but not before yesterday". With precisely the same difference in meaning we find opposed to f3guáde, f3guádam, f3guádum, etc., f3guápe, f3gltápam, and f3guápum; opposed to bekádu etc., bekápu etc.; opposed to tef3gándu etc., tef3gámpu etc.; opposed to f3grundu etc., f3gnîmpu etc.; opposed to uódu etc., uópu etc.

Again, we have to do with a productive category; we call it the category of the Recent Past. As it appears to be in opposition with Tense categories, it is of the same order.

To the description of the semantic value of the Recent Past category must be added that members of this category are also used for denoting actions, performed in a past more remote than the preceding day, this to indicate a difference of time in the past. Thus, in a narrative, told with verb-forms of the Past Tense, a form of the Recent Past may be introduced to refer to some event that happened at a time, later than that in which thc rest of the story is set.

7. Morphonological variations.

Some of the words, discussed up to now, caU for further consideration. For we see that in the cases of te13gáfjku, tefjgá13ke, tCfjgáfjkam, and te13gá13kum, as opposed to tefjgámpu, tCfjgámpe, tCfjgámpam, and tCfjgámpwm, as opposed to tefjgántu, tefjgánte, tCfjgántam, and te13gántum, and also to te13gándu, tefjgánde, tefjgándam, and tefjgándam; and of 13grufjku etc., as opposed to 13grûmpu etc., as opposed to 13gruntu etc., and 13grundu etc., there is not only the difference of the consonant, acting as the morpheme of the Tense category, but also the immediately preceding nasal is different. This nasal consonant appears to be part of the root-morpheme. In those cases in which this consonant is wordfinal (we will come across these cases later on, in the §§ 46 and 47), it appears to be 13, e.g. tefjgáfj. 13grufj. Therefore, we take this fj as a norm and formulate the following mie: root-morpheme-final 13 becomes m if, within the same word, it is immediately followed by p, and becomes n if, within the same word, it is immediately followed by t or d. 12 OccasionaUy, the 13 is preserved before immediately foUowing p, t, or d, e.g. fjgrufjdu instead of fjgrundu; but this is exceptional, the partial assimilation to homorganic nasal being the mie.

8. Other morphonological variations.

In contrast to the root-morphemes with final 13, aU root-morphemes having final vowel renmin unchanged in the forms discussed above. The same can be said of the root-morphemes having final m, like sam - put in between, found in forms like sámdu, sámte, sámpam, and sámkum. But the case of root-morphemes having final b is different. If immediately followed by d, this b remains unchanged but, if immediately followed by t or k, the b may be replaced by p. In these cases there seems to be no preferenee for either p or b.

So with the root-morphemes pyb - stab, brub - fold, peb - peel, and besib - bend, we find the Future forms pybdu, brubde, pébdam and besfbdam, but the Present forms pybtu and p)'ptu, brubte and brupte, pébtam and péptam. besîbtum and besiptum; and the Past forms pybku and pypku, brubke and brupke, pébkam and pépkam, besibkum and besipkum.

The corresponding Recent Past forms appear to be pypu, brupe, pépam, and besipum. So we may say that root-morpheme-final band an immediately following pare merged into a single p. To this must be added that this p always is a stop and that the fricative allophone which may occur anywhere else in intervocalic position, as a free variant, is not pos si bie here (cf. Part One, Ch. IV, § 1).

9. The Second Position category. Two accents on verb·forms.

There are more forms to which the members of the Past category may be opposed, e.g.

f3guábáku - I bit above, to f3guáku.

f3guábáke - you bit above, to f3guál?e,

f3guábákam - he bit above, to f3guákam,

f3guábákum - she (it) bit above, to f3guákum.

In the same way, we find bekábáku - I kicked above, etc., opposed to bekáku etc. and uóbáktt - I dibbled above, etc., opposed to uóku etc.

Formally, these new forms show an element -baimmediately preceding the Tense morpheme. Further, the vowel of this -bahas an accent, just like one of the vowels of the root-morpheme. SemanticaUy, these forms are characterized by the element "in a place within the speaker's sight but higher than that of the speaker".

The other forms, with which we compared them, lack both the -baand the senmntic element, just described. It appears that this -bais the morpheme of a productive category which we caU the Second Position category.

The occurrence of two accents in one word, as found with members of this category, has already been mentioned in Part One, Ch. VII, § 3. As we shall see later on, this is the case with the majority of the verb-forms. If a verb-form has two accents, one is on a vowel of the root-morpheme, the other is on a vowel of a categoric morpheme. UsuaUy, the former is secundary and the latter a primary accent but a speaker may prefer to make the accent of the root-morpheme a primary one, which automaticaUy causes the other accent to be secondary. This happens particularly if the lexical meaning is stressed, as is the case when two forms, differing in lexical meaning, are contrasted, e.g. bekábáku kuo be, uóbáku - I did not kick above, I dibbled above.

The occurrence of a second accent (if any) and its place in the word will be indicated for each of the verb-forms to be discussed.

10. The Third Position category.

The forms discussed in § 9 can be opposed to

fjguáfjáku - I bit below, fjgttáfjákam - he bit below, fjguáfjáke - you bit below, fjguáfjákttm - she (it) bit below.

We also find bekáfjáku - I kicked below, etc., and UÓfjáku - I dibbled below, etc.

Formally these forms are characterized by all element -fja-, immediately preceding the Tense morpheme and having an accent on its vowel. Semantically, they have in common the element 'in a place within the speaker's sight but lower than that of the speaker". They all belong to a category which appears to be capable of extension and, con sequently, is productive. We call it the Third Position category.

11. The Fourth P08ltlon category.

To the forms discussed in § 9 and § 10 the following can be opposed:

fjguásáku - I bit there, fjguásákam - he bit there, fjgttásáke - you bit there, fjguásákum - she (it) bit there,

and also bekásáku - I kicked there, etc., and uósáku - I dibbled there, etc.

These words are characterized, formally, by the element -sawhich immediately precedes the Tense morpheme and has an accent on its vowel, and semantically by the element "in the place of the person addressed or in a place on the same level as the speaker's place but c1early opposed to it".

This category also appears to be productive; we call it the Fourth Position category.

12. The Flfth P081tlon category.

Another category is found in the following forms which show contrast with those discussed in the §§ 9 to 11:

tJguánáku - I bit far away, bel?ánáktt - I kicked far away, tJguánáke - you bit far away, etc., tJguánákam - he bit far away, uónáku - I dibbled for away, tJguánákum - she (it) bit far away, etc.

Their formal characteristic is the element -nawhich precedes the Tense morpheme and has an accent on its vowel. SemanticaUy, they are characterized by the element "in a place beyond the sight of the speaker (and the person addressed)". This category also is productive. We caU it the Fifth Position category.

13. The Flrst Position category as opposed to the others.

As the categories we came across in the §§ 9 to 12 show mutual opposition, they are of the same order which we caIl the order of the Pos i t ion cat ego r i e s.

The forms which do not show a formal mark as to "position", e.g. tJguáku etc., also have their place in this connection. SemanticaIly, they are not as un-characterized as they seemed to be. A form like tJguáku, if opposed to tJguábáku, tJguá1}áku, etc., has the meaning "I bit here" or - in a more general formula - it contains the semantic element "in the place where the speaker is". Therefore, these forms may be said to be members of a Position category with zero morpheme. We caU this the First Position category. Members of this category are always used in those cases in which the place of the action in regard to the speaker's position is indefinite or does not play a role, e.g. in stories, general statements, and the like.

I t must be observed that in some cases the lexical meaning of a morphological set asks for an a d hoc adaptation of the categorie meanings of the Position categories, as described in the §§ 9 to 13. E.g. in forms with the root-morpheme kri- (flee) or with the rootmorpheme uauy- (take along) the position category does not denote the place w her e but the place f rom w her e the flight or the taking takes place.

14. Morphonologlcal remarks in connectlon wtth the Posltlon categories.

In § 7 we saw that, in certain cases, the root-morpheme varies according to the immediately foIlowing Tense morpheme. As the morphemes, characterizing the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position

MORPHOLOGY 6S Verh. dl. 44 5

category, precede the Tense morpheme and, therefore, may immediately follow the root-morpheme, we have to ascertain if changes in the phonemic shape of the root-morpheme occur also here.

1t appears that root-morphemes having final vowel or final m do not show any change; but changes are found with root-morphemes having final b or '3. The deportment of root-morpheme-final b appears from the following instances:

pybáku - I stabbed above, besib13áku - I bent below,

besibáku - I bent above, etc., péb13áku - I peeled below, etc.

brubáku - I folded above, pypsáku or pybsáku - I stabbed there,

pébaku - I peeled above, brubsáktt or brt'tpsáku - I folded there,

pyb13áku - I stabbed below, pybnáku - I stabbed far away,

brub13áku - I folded bel ow , brûbnáku - I folded far away,

From these examples (to which many others might be added) we see that root-morpheme-final b:

remains unchanged if, within the word, it is immediately followed by 13 or n;

is merged with a b, following immediately within the word, into one single b;

may be replaced by p or remain unchanged, if s follows immediately within the same word (free variation).

The behaviour of root-morpheme-final 13 is shown by the following instances:

te13gámbáku - I knocked above, te13gánsáku - I knocked there,

13grltmbáku - I hung up above, 13grunsáku - I hung up there,

te13gá13áku - I knocked below, te13gánáku - I knocked far away,

13grû13áku - I hung up below, 13grunáku - I hung up far away.

From these examples it appears (and this receives confirmation by all similar cases) that root-morpheme-final 13:

is replaced by m if, within the word, it is immediately followed by b;

is replaced by n if s follows immediately within the same word; is merged with a 13, following immediately within the word, into one single 13;

is merged with a n, following immediately within the same word, into a single n.

15. Future fonns of the Second, Thlrd, Fourth, and Fifth Posltlon categorles.

Opposed to the Future forms of the First Position category: fjguádu - I will bite (here), fjguáde - you will bite (here), fjguádam - he will bite (here), fjguádum - she (it) will bite (here), we find fjguábáru - I will bite above, fjguábáre - you will bi te above, fjguábáram - he will bite above, fjguábárum - she (it) will bite above. Corresponding to bekádu - I will kick (here), etc., tefjgándu - I will knock (here), etc., fjgrundu - I will hang up (here), etc., uódu - I will dibble (here), etc., we find bekábáru - I will kick above, etc., tefjgámbáru - I will knock above, etc., fjgrumbáru - I will hang up above, etc., uóbáru - I will dibble above, etc. The last-mentioned forms are members of the Second Position category. In the Third Position category we find as Future forms: fjguáfjáru - I will bi te below, etc., bekáfjáru - I will kick below, etc., tCfjgáfjáru - I will knock below, etc., fjgrufjáru - I will hang up below, etc.

As Future forms of the Fourth Position category we find:

tJguásáru - I will bite there, etc., bekásáru - I will kick there, etc., tetJgánsáru - I will knock there, etc., tJgrunsáru - I will hang up there, etc.

In the Fifth Position category we find the Future forms:

tJguánáru - I will bite far away, etc.,

bekánáru - I will kick far away, etc.,

tetJgánáru - I will knock far away, etc.,

tJgrunáru - I will hang up far away, etc.

All these forms follow the rules, so far established, except for the tense-morpheme which is -rin all these forms instead of -d-. As this appears to be the case with all members of these Position categories, we state the rule that the morpheme, characterizing the Future category, is -din members of the First Position category and -rin members of the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position categories.

Side by si de with the forms of the Fourth Position category, e.g. tJguásáru etc. and tJguásáku etc., we find forms in which the s is replaced by h as free variants : t)guáháru, t)guáháku etc. But these h-alternants only occur if the consonant in ql1estion immediately follows the root-morpheme and immediately precedes avowel which has an accent and is followed by at least one consonant which is not wordfinal. As we shall see later on, these conditions are uSl1ally fulfilled only in the Singular forms of Future and Past.

16. Present forms of the Second Position category.

To t)guábáru - I will bi te above, and t)guábáku - I bit above, on the one side and to t)guátu - I bite here, on the other side, there can be opposed tJguábáu - I bi te above. In the same way we find, opposed to tJguábare - you will bite above, and t)guábáke - you bit above, on the one hand to tJguáte - you bite here, on the other hand, tJguábáe - you bite above. It appears that these are Present forms of the Second Position category. A striking feature of these forms is the absence of any substantial element characterizing the tense category. In fact, the Present tense is marked here by the absence of any formal element in between the Position morpheme and the Actor morpheme. So we may say that in Present forms of the Second Position category (or: in Second Position forms of the Present tense category, which comes to the same thing) the morpheme of the category of the Present is zero.

Less simple is the case of the corresponding Third Person forms. These are:

f3guábám - he bites above,

f3guábóm - she (it) bites above.

In these forms too the Present is characterized by a zero element but the sequence of the vowel of the Position morpheme -baand the vowel of the Actor morpheme, as we saw in the First and Second Person forms, is not found here. In the Third Person Masculine the combination a + a which might be expected here yields one single a. This is in accordance with the general rule of word-structure that, within a word, a is never immediately followed by a (cf. Part One, eh. v, § 1). But there is no peremptory rule forcing the sequence au which one might expect in the Third Person Neutral form, to become o. So we have to accept this fact as a peculiarity of these verb-forms. It can be described in the formula: Second Position morpheme + immediate1y following Third Person Neutral morpheme = -bóm. 13 It remains to add that the accent, found with the First and Second Person forms of the Present and with all Singular forms of Future and Past, in the Third Person Masculine forms of the Present is on the a of -bam and in the Third Person Neutral forms of the Present is the 0 of -bom but may be absent in both cases (free variation). So we find as free alternants f3guábám and f3guábam, f3guábóm and 13guábom, etc.

Present forms of the Second Position category with other rootmorphemes are in entire agreement with the f3gllá-forms described above, e.g.

bekábáu - I kick above,

bekábáe - you kick above,

bekábám, bekábam - he kicks above,

bekábóm, bekábom - she (it) kicks above,

uóbáu - I dibble above, etc.,

f3grumbáu - I hang up above, etc.,

tCf3gámbáu - I knock above, etc.

17. Present-Recent Past in the Second Positlon category.

The forms, discussed in § 16, all show a semantic element that was left out of consideration there. 13guábáu, for instance, has - be si des the meaning "I bite above" - the meaning "I bit above today or yesterday", in other words; this Second Position form corresponds with both 13guátu and 13gltápu of the First Position category. This is the case with all forms, discussed in § 16 as Present forms. In the Second Position category the opposition between Present and Recent Past, as found with the forms of the First Position category, appears not to exist. Therefore, in the case of the Second Position forms we have to speak of a Present-Recent Past tense.

18. Present-Becent Past forms of the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position categories.

In the Fourth and Fifth Po si ti on categories we find Present-Recent Past forms completely in accordance with those of the Second Position category, e.g.:

13guásám, 13guásam - he bites (bit) (today, yesterday) there,

13guánóm, 13guánom - she (it) bites (bit) far away.

But in the Third Position category we find the Present-Recent Past forms:

13guákefjáu - I bi te (bit) below,

13guáke?jáe - you bite (bit) below,

13guákefjám - he bites (bit) below,

13guákefjóm - she (it) bites (bit) below.

In these forms we see an element -kenawhich, on the one hand, characterizes them as Third Position forms in opposition to PresentRecent Past forms of other Position categories, on the other hand, characterizes them as Present-Recent Past forms in opposition to Future and Past forms of the Third Position category (in the latter case in combination with zero preceding the Actor morpheme). Another peculiar feature is that the Third Person Masculine always has an accent on the a of -ketJam so that an alternant form without that accent does not occur. The same can be said of the accent on the 0 of -ke13om of the Third Person Neutral form. As free variants, forms are found for all four Persons having n instead of 13 in the Position-Tense morpheme, e.g. fjguákenáu, free alternant of fjguáke1Jáu. But the alternants having fj appear to be much more frequently used than those with n. Other in stances of Present-Recent Past forms of the Third, the Fourth, and the Fifth Position categories are:

bekáke1Jáu - I kick (kicked) below, uóke1jáe - you dibble (dibbled) below, fjgrunsám - he hangs (hung) up there, tefjgánsóm - she knocks (knocked) there, fjgrunáu - I hang (hung) up far away, tefjgánóm - she knocks (knocked) far away.

19. The Slxth Posltlon category.

In opposition to pribdu - I will throw (here), pribde - you will throw (here), pribdam - he will throw (here), pribdum - she (it) will throw (here), pribáru - I will throw above, etc., pribfjáru - I will throw below, etc., priPsáru - I will throw there, etc., pribnáru - I will throw far awy, etc., we find: pribedu - I will throw from here to above, pribedé - you will throw from here to above, pribedám - he will throw from here to above, pribedum - she (it) will throw from here to above. Opposed to these last four forms we find: pribetu - I throw from here to above, pribeté - you throw from here to above, pribetám - he throws from here to above, pribetum - she throws from here to above, and: pribepu - I threw (today, yesterday) from here to above, pribepé - you threw (today, yesterday) from here to above, pribepám - he threw (today, yesterday) from here to above, pribepum - she threw (today, yesterday) from here to above, and:

pribeku - I threw from here to above,

pribeké - you threw from here to above,

pribekám - he threw from here to above,

pribekum - she (it) threw from here to above.

These forms appear to be members of a productive category. They are marked by the formal element -bewhich immediately precedes the Tense morpheme; semantically they are characterized by the element "from the speaker's place to a higher place within the speaker's sight". As to the formal side, it must be added that here the morpheme -dis characteristic of the Future Tense forms and that the Present forms are marked by the morpheme -t-, just like what is found in the First Position forms. Moreover, all members of this category have an accent on the vowel of the Actor morpheme. This category we call the Sixth Position category.

In point of Tense categories, the members of the Sixth Position category are fully parallel to the forms of the First Position category, and not to the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position forms, as in the Sixth Position category separate Recent Past forms exist with Tense morpheme -p-.

20. The Seventh Position category.

To the forms discussed in § 19 the following can be opposed:

priPsedu - I will throw from here to there,

pripsedé - you will throw from here to there,

pripsedám - he will throw from here to there,

pripscdûm - she (it) will throw from here to there,

pripsetu - I throw from here to there, etc.,

pripsepu - I threw (today, yesterday) from here to there, etc.,

pripseku - I threw from here to there, etc.

These forms belong to a productive category, the members of which are characterized by the formal element -se-, immediately preceding the Tense morpheme, and by the semantic element "from the speaker's place to the place of the person addressed or to another place within the speaker's sight, on the same level as the speaker's place, but clearly opposed to it". This category we call the Seventh Position category. The members of this category show a close similarity to the forms of the Sixth Position category as they have an accent on the vowel of the Actor morpheme, the Future morpheme -d-, the Present morpheme -t-, and Recent Past as a separate Tense category, opposed also to the Present Tense, with the Tense morpheme -p-.

21. The Elghth Poslt1on category.

To the forms, discussed in § 19 and § 20, the following can be opposed:

priPsedy - I will throw down from here (i.e. from here to below),

pripsedi - you will throw down from here, pripsedim - he will throw down from here, pripsedym - she (it) will throw down from here, priPsety - I throw down from here, priPseti - you throw down from here, pripsetim - he throws down from here, pripsetym - she (it) throws down from here, priPsepy - I threw down from here (today, yesterday), priPsePi - you threw down from here (today, yesterday), priPsepim - he threw down from here (today, yesterday), pripsepym - she (it) threw down from here (today, yesterday), pripseky - I threw down from here, pripseki - you threw down from here, pripsekim - he threw down from here, priPsekym - she (it) threw down from here.

These forms are different from those of the Seventh Position category by the vowels of the Actor morphemes. The morpheme of the First Person is -y, that of the Second Person is -i, that of the Third Person Masculine is -im, and that of the Third Person Neutral is -ym. This series of Actor morphemes - which we will come across again in other categories later on - we call the apo p h 0 n i c series.

The forms, cited above, appear to belong to a productive category. The members of this category are characterized formally by the element -se-, immediately preceding the Tense morpheme, and Actor morphemes of the apophonic series, semantically by the element "from the speaker's place to a lower place within the speaker's sight". We call this category the Eighth Position category.

Just like the forms of the Sixth and Seventh Position categories, the members of the Eighth Position category have an accent on the vowel of the Actor morpheme. The Future morpheme in this category is -d-) the Present morpheme is -t-) and there is a separate Recent Past category with the Tense morpheme -p-.

22. The Ninth P081tlon category.

To the forms, discussed in the §§ 19 to 21, can be opposed:

pribnedy - I will throw from here to far away,

pribnedi - you will throw from here to far away,

pribnedim - he will throw from here to far away,

pribned),11t - she (it) will throw from here to far away,

pribnety - I throw from here to far away, etc.,

pribnepy - I threw from here to far away (today, yesterday), etc.,

pribneky - I threw from here to far away, etc.

These forms belong to a productive category whose members are formally characterized by the element -ne-, immediately preceding the Tense morpheme, and Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. Their common semantical element is "from the speaker's place to a place beyond the sight of the speaker (and the person addressed)". We call this category the Ninth Position category. In this category we again find an accent on the vowel of the Actor morpheme, -das the Future morpheme, -tas the Present morpheme, a separate Recent Past category, and -pas the Recent Past morpheme.

23. The Tenth Posltlon category.

To the forms discussed in the §§ 19 to 22 can be opposed:

pripkendy - I will throw from above or {rom far away to here,

priPkendim - he will throw from above or from far away to here, pripkendym - she (it) will throw {rom above or from far away to here, etc., away to here, etc.,

pripkendi - you will throw from above or from far away to here,

pripkenty - I throw from above or from far away to here,

pripkempy - I threw (today, yesterday) from above or from far

pripket3ky - I threw from above or from far away to here, etc.

Once more, we have found a productive category whose members are formally characterized by the element -kefj-, immediately preceding the Tense morpheme, and the Apophonic series of Actor morphemes, and, semantically, by the element "from a place which is higher than the speaker's place or from a place outside the speaker's sight to the speaker's place". We caU it the Tenth Position category.

Just like the forms of the Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Position categories, the members of the Tenth Position category have an accent on the vowel of the Actor morpheme. Other common characteristics of these categories are the form of the Future Tense morpheme, -d-, the form of the Present Tense morpheme, -t-, and the existence of a separate Recent Past category with the Tense morpheme -p-.

From the given examples it appears that the element, designated above by -kefj-, is -kenif immediately preceding d or tand -kemif immediately followed by p.

24. The Eleventh Posltlon category.

To the forms discussed in the §§ 19 to 23 the following ean be opposed:

pribándu - I will throw from below to here,

pribánde - you will throw from below to here,

pribándam - he will throw from below to here,

pribándum - she (it) will throw from below to here,

prîbántu - I throw from below to here,

etc.,

pribámpu - I threw (today, yesterday) from below to here,

etc.,

pribáfjku - I threw from below to here,

etc.

Those forms appear to belong to a productive category whose members are formaUy characterized by the element -bafj-, having an accent on its vowel, immediately preceding the Tense morpheme, whereas they have in common the semantical element "from a lower place within the speaker's sight to the speaker's place". We caU it the Eleventh Position category.

In this category too the morpheme of the Future Tense is -d-, the Present Tense morpheme is -t-, and there is a separate Recent Past category with the morpheme -p-. The morpheme of the Eleventh

Position category we have designated by -bafjbut it is -banif immediately followed by d or tand -bamif immediately preceding p, as is shown by the examples given above.

25. The Twelfth Position category.

To the forms discussed in the §§ 19 to 24 can be opposed:

pripsándu - I will throw from there to here, pripsánde - you will throw from there to here, priPsándam - he will throw from there to here, priPsándum - she (it) will throw from there to here, pripsántu - I throw from there to here, etc., pripsámpu - I threw (today, yesterday) from there to here, etc., pripsáfjku - I threw from there to here, etc.

These forms appear to belong to a productive category. lts members are formally characterized by the element -sa'3- which has an accent on the a and immediately precedes the Tense morpheme. The semantical element they have in common is "from the place of the person addressed or from a place within the speaker's sight (and c1early opposed to the speaker's place) to the speaker's place".

In this category, too, the Future morpheme is -d-, the morpheme of the Present Tense is -t-, and there is a separate category of the Recent Past having -pas Tense morpheme. As may be seen from the examples cited above, the morpheme of this category - which we call the Twelfth Position category - is -samif immediate1y preceding pand -sanif immediately followed by d or t.

In free variation with all these forms other forms are found having h instead of the s of the morpheme of this category (so -hafjetc.), e.g. pribhándu - I will throw from here to there. Such free variants, however, are only found with the Singtllar forms and never with Dual or Plural forms (to be discussed later on).

26. The Thirteenth Position category.

To the forms discussed in the §§ ] 9 tot 25 the following can be opposed:

pribenánt - I will throw from below, from there, or from far away

to above,

pribenáre - you will throw from be10w (etc.) to above,

pribenáram - he will throw from below (etc.) to above,

pribenárum - she (it) will throw from below (etc.) to above,

pribenanáu - I throw (threw today, yesterday) from below (etc.)

to above,

pribenanáe - you throw (threw today, yesterday) from below (etc.)

to above,

pribenanám - he throws (threw today, yesterday) from below (etc.)

to above,

pribenanóm - she (it) throws (threw today, yesterday) from below

(etc.) to above,

pribenáku - I threw from below (etc.) to above,

pribenáke - you threw from below (etc.) to above,

pribenákam - he threw from below (etc.) to above,

pribenákum - she (it) threw from bel ow (etc.) to above.

These forms belong to a productive category which we caU the Thirteenth Position category. They are formaUy characterized by the element -benaimmediately preceding the Tense morpheme; the common element in their meaning is "from a place which is not the speaker's place to a place which is higher than the speaker's place".

The Tense morpheme of the Future forms is -r-. The a of the Position morpheme (-bena-) has an accent in the Future and Past Tense forms. In this Position category there is no opposition between Present and Recent Past forms but there is only one series of forms having both Recent Past and Present meaning, just like what we found in the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position categories. Another point of resemblance to these categories is the fact that the Tense morpheme is zero and that the combination of Position morpheme, zero Tense morpheme, and Actor morphemes results in analogous forms. Beside the forms of Future and Past, the PresentRecent Past forms of the Thirteenth Position category show the peculiarity of a slightly different form of the Position morpheme which is -benanawith an accent on the second a in the First Person, Second Person, and Third Person Masculine, and on the 0 in the Third Person Neutral.

27. The Fourteenth Position category.

To the forms discussed in the §§ 19 to 26 the following can be opposed:

pripsenáru - I will throw from below to there,

pripsenáre - you will throw from below to there,

pripsenáram - he will throw from below to there,

pripsenárum - she (it) will throw from be10w to there,

priPsenanáu - I throw (threw today, yesterday) from below to there,

priPsenanáe - you throw (threw today, yesterday) from below to

there,

pripsenanám - he throws (threw today, yesterday) from below

to there,

priPsenanóm - she (it) throws (threw today, yesterday) from

below to there,

pripsenáku - I threw from below to there,

etc.

These forms appear to be members of a productive category. Formally, they are characterized by the element -sena-, in Future and Past forms, or -senanain Present-Recent Past forms; their common element of meaning is "from aplace, lower than that of the speaker, to the place of the person addressed or to a place which is c1early opposed to the speaker's place and within the speakers sight". This category we call the Fourteenth Position category. As to their formal characteristics, the members of this category are parallel to those of the Thirteenth Po si ti on category: the morpheme of the Future Tense is -r-, there is only one series of forms for Present and Recent Past with Tense morpheme zero, and there is an accent on the last vowel of the Position morpheme.

28. The Fifteenth P08ition category.

To the forms discussed in the §§ 19 to 27 the following can be opposed:

pripkenéry - I will throw from above, from below, or from there to far away,

pripkenéri - you will throw from above (etc.) to far away,

pripkenérim - he will throw from above (etc.) to far away,

prîpkenérym - she (it) will throw from above (etc.) to far away, pripkenenéy - I throw (threw today, yesterday) from above (etc.) to far away,

pripkenenéi - you throw (threw today, yesterday) from above (etc.) to far away,

priPkeneném - he throws (threw today, yesterday) from above (etc.) to far away,

pripkenenyém - she (it) throws (threw today, yesterday) from above (etc.) to far away,

pripkenéky - I threw from above (etc.) to far away, etc.

These forms belong to a productive category whose members are formally characterized by the element -kenein Future and Past forms and -kenenein Present-Recent Past forms which immediately precedes the Tense morpheme (or the Actor morpheme, if the Tense morpheme is zero) and which has an accent on its last e and Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. The common element of meaning is "from a place within the speaker's sight, but not the speaker's place, to a place outside the speaker's sight". We call this category the Fifteenth Position category.

As we saw above, this category too has one series of forms with zero Tense morpheme and both Present and Recent Past meaning. In the Third Person Masculine form of this series the i of the Actor morpheme in the corresponding Future and Past Tense forms is lacking. In the Third Person Neutral form of the Present-Recent Past series the vowel y of the Actor morpheme precedes the last e of the Position morpheme. These phenomena will be found with all Third Person forms with zero Tense morpheme and Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series.

29. The Sixteenth PositIon cat.egory.

To the forms discussed in the §§ 19 to 28 the following can be opposed:

pripsenéry - I will throw from there to below, from above to below, from far away to below, from above to there, or from far away to there.

pripsenéri - you wiJl throw from there to bel ow, etc.

pripsenérim - he wiJl throw from there to below, etc.,

priPsenérym - she (it) will throw from there to below, etc.,

MORPHOLOGY 79 etc.

pripsenenéy - I throw (threw today, yesterday) from there to below, etc.,

pripsenenéi - you throw (threw) from there to below, etc., priPseneném - he throws (threw) from there to below, etc., pripsenenyém - she (it) throws (threw) from there to below, etc., pripsenéky - I threw from there to below, etc.,

These forms appear to be members of a productive category. Their formal characteristics are the element -sene- (in Future and Past Tense forms) or -senene- (in Present-Recent Past forms), having an accent on its last e and immediately preceding the Tense morpheme or, if the Tense morpheme is zero, the Actor morpheme, and Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. Their common element of meaning is "from a place which is not the speaker's place to a place within the speaker's sight and lower than that of the speaker, or from a place, higher than that of the speaker or outside the speaker's sight, to the place of the person addressed or another place, within the speaker's sight, which is on the same level as the speaker's place but c1early opposed to it". We eaU this the Sixteenth Position category.

Future forms belonging to this category have -ras their Tense morpheme. The Tense morpheme of the forms having both Present and Recent Past meaning is zero and in the Third Person Neutral and Third Person Masculine forms the same formal peculiarities are found as described in § 28 for the corresponding forms of the Fifteenth Position category.

30. Survey of the Position categorles: two groups.

Looking back to what was stated above on the forms of the Position categories, we see that two groups are c1early visible. The first group is characterized by:

1. Future morpheme -d-;

2. Present morpheme -t-;

3. Recent Past morpheme -p-;

4. the existence of Present and Recent Past as separate Tense categories which also show mutual opposition.

To this first group belong the First, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Position categories.

The second group is distinguished from the first by:

1. Future morpheme -r-;

2. zero morpheme for Present - Recent Past;

3. the existence of one series of forms having both Present and Recent Past meaning.

To this second group belong the Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Sixteenth Position categories.

As far as meaning is concerned, it appears that all Position categories belonging to the first group have the semantic element "in, from, or to the speaker's place", whereas this element does not occur in the meaning of any of the Position categories belonging to the second group.

As to the place of the morphemes which characterize the Po si ti on categories, it was stated above that this is "immediately preceding the Tense morpheme". Naturally, something must be added for those forms which have zero Tense morpheme. There the place of the Position morpheme is "immediately preceding the Actor morpheme"; in the forms of the Third Person Masculine and the Third Person Neutral the formal peculiarities are found which are described in § 16 and § 28.

31. The category of the First + Second Person Slngular.

To the forms described in §§ 2 to 18 the following can be opposed:

f3guámandám - you and I will bite (here), f3guámantám - you and I bite (here), f3guámampám - you and I bit today or yesterday (here), f3guámaf3kám - you and I bit (here), f3gllámambarám - you and I will bite above, f3guámambám - you and I bite (bit today or yesterday) above, f3guámambakám - you and I bit above, f3guámaf3arám - you and I will bi te below, f3guámaf3kef3ám - you and I bite (bit today or yesterday) below, f3guámaf3akám - you and I bit below, f3guámansarám - you and I will bite there, f3guámansám - you and I bi te (bit today or yesterday) there, f3guámansakám - you and I bit there, f3guámanarám - you and I will bite far away, f3guámanám - you and I bite (bit today or yesterday) far away, f3guámanakám - you and I bit far away.

The forma! element, common to all these worels, is found immediately preceding the Position morpheme or, if the latter is zero, immediately preceding the Tense morpheme. This common element is -manif immediately preceding t, d or s, -mamif immediately followed by p or b, and -matJ- if immediately followed by k; it appears to be -matJtogether with the tJ of the Third Position category and -mantogether with the n of the Fifth Position category. Moreover, all these forms show the ending -am which is the same as the morpheme for the Third Person Masculine except for always having an accent, whereas in the forms of the Future and Past of the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position categories the Position morpheme has no accent. The combination of this -am with the Position morpheme in those forms in which the Tense morpheme is zero (Present - Recent Past forms of the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position categories) is the same as found in the corresponding forms of the Third Person Masculine.

The common semantical element in all these words, represented in the translation of the examples by "you and I", is more accurately described by the formula "the action is attributed to a singular person addressed and the speaker together as an actor".

All these forms appear to be members of a productive category which is of the order of the Actor categories. This category we call thp category of the First + Second Person Singular.

In the same category we find:

bekámambarám - you and I will kick above,

tetJgámantám - you and I knock (here),

tJgrumansakám - you and I hung up there,

uómtnjketJám - you and I dibble (dibbled today or yesterday) below.

From the form tJgrumansakám it appears that root-morpheme-final tJ reacts to an immediately following m in the same way as to immediately following n or tJ: from the -tJ and the mresults a single -m-.

To the forms discussed in the §§ 19 to 29 the following can be opposed:

pribmambedám - you and I will throw from here to above,

pribmambetám - you and I throw from here to above,

pribmambepám - you and I threw today or yesterday from here

to above,

pribmambekám - you and I threw from here to above,

pribmansedám - you and I will throw from here to there,

pribmansetám - you and I throw from here to there,

pribmansePám - you and I threw today or yesterday from here

Verh. dl. 44

to there, pribmansekám - you and I threw from here to there, pribmensedim - you and I will throw from here to below, pribmensetim - you and I throw from here to below, pribmensePim - you and I threw today or yesterday from here to below, pribmenedim - you and I will throw from here to far away, pribmenetim - you and I throw from here to far away, pribmenepim - you and I threw today or yesterday from here to far away, pribmenekim - you and I threw from here to far away, pribmefjkendim - you and I will throw from above or from far away to here, pribmefjkentim - you and I throw from above or from far away to here, pribmefjkemPim - you and I threw today (etc.) from above or from far away to here, pribmefjkefjkim - you and I threw from above or from far away to here, pribmambandám - you and I will throw from below to here, pribmambantám - you and I throw from below to here, pribmambampám - you and I threw today (etc.) from below to here, pribmansantám - you and I throw from there to here, pribmambenarám - you and I will throw from below to above, from there to above, from far away to above, pribmambenanám - you and I throw (threw) from below to above (etc.) pribmefjkenerim - you and I will throw from above to far away, from below to far away, from there to far away, prîbmefjkeneném - you and I throw (threw) from above to far away (etc.),

pribmensekim - you and I threw from here to below,

pribmamba?jkám - you and I threw from below to here,

pribmansandám - you and I will throw from there to here,

pribmansamPám - you and I threw today (etc.) from there to here,

pribmansafjkám - you and I threw from there to here,

pribmambenakám - you and I threw from below to above (etc.),

pribmansenarám - you and I will throw from below to there,

pribmansenanám - you and I throw (threw) from below to there,

pribmansenakám - you and I threw from below to there,

pribmenkenekim - you and I threw from above to far away (etc.), pribmensenerim - you and I will throw from above to below, from there to below, from far away to below, from above to there, from far away to there,

pribmenseneném - you and I throw (threw) from above to below (etc.), pribmensenekim - you and I threw from above to below (etc.).

All these forms agree with what was stated above in this § about the First + Second Person Singular. Exceptional, however, are the forms of the Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, Fifteenth, and Sixteenth Position categories in which the formal element which precedes the Position morpheme is -menor -mefJ- with the vowel e and not with the vowel a as is found elsewhere. This appears to have a direct connection with the fact that these Position categories have Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. We may state as a general rule that verb morphemes which are no root-morphemes and have a vowel a in other forms change this a into e in forms with Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. This rule is given in a wider formula than is suggested by the materiais, given above, but its rightness will be confirmed time and again later on.

32. The category of the Dual in the Second to Sixteenth Position categorles.

Opposed to: fJguábáru - I will bite above, fJguábáre - you will bite above, fJguábáram - he will bite above, fJguábárum - she will bite above, we find: fJguákebáru - we two will bite above, fJguákebáre - you (two or more) will bite above, fJguákebáram - they two (male beings) will bite above, fJguákebárum - they two (not both male beings) will bite above.

The forms of the latter series have in common the element -keimmediately following the root-morpheme and the semantical element of the duality of the actor. To this must be remarked that the form fJguákebáru never can have the meaning "you and I will bi te above" but exclusively has the meaning of the speaker and somebody (or something) el se as an actor. To this must be added that the form fJguákebáre not only has the meaning "you two will bite above" but also "you (plural) will bite above". So in this case we find an extra meaning if compared with the other -ke- -forms. The meaning of t'Jguákebáram is such that it can only be used if the actor consists of two male beings, whereas the form t'Jguákebárum is used if the actor is dual, does not include the speaker or the person addressed, and does not consist of two persons of the male sex. Therefore, the actor of t'Jguákebárum may be one male and one female being, two female beings, etc.

Precisely the same formal element combined with the same semantical characteristics are found with:

t'Jguákebáu - we two bite (bit) above,

t'Jguákebáke - you (two, plural) bit above,

t'Jguákesáram - they two (male) will bite there,

t'Jguákesóm - they two (not exclusively male) bite (bit) there,

t'Jguákenáu - we two bi te (bit) far away,

t'Jguákeket'jáe - you (two or more) bite (bit) below,

t'Jgrut'Jket'jákam - they two (male) hung up below,

tet'jgát'Jkebóm - they two (not excl. male) knock (knocked) above,

uókeket'jám - they two (male) dibble (dibbled) below,

pripkebeku - we two threw from here to above,

priPkeseti - you (two, more) throw from here to below,

pripkebat'jkám - they two (male) threw from below to here,

pripkebenanóm - they two (not excl. male) throw (threw) from below to above, from there to above, from far away to above,

pripkekenenyém - they two (not excl. male) throw from above to far away, from below to far away, from there to far away.

I t is possible to add more examples ad infinitum, as the category to which they belong appears to be productive. We caU this category the Dual category. lts members are in opposition with the forms discussed in the preceding §§. The latter constitute the category of the Singular whose formal characteristic is zero, except in the First + Second Person (see § 31) in which the morpheme -mat'J- marks not only the Person but also the number of the Actor.

As the Second Person Dual mayalso have the meaning of plurality of the actor, the categorical meaning of the Dual is best described as "not singular, not First or Third Person plural". But we keep the term "Dual", as this is the best fitting short term.

As the Singular category and the Dual category are In mutual opposition, they are of the same order which we call the order of the number of the actor.

33. Dual fOnDS of the First posltlon category.

To the Dual forms of § 32 the following can be added:

fjguákedu - we two will bite (here), fjguákedé - you (two or more) will bite (here), fjgttákedám - they two (excl. male) will bite (here), fjguákedum - they two (not excl. male) will bi te (here), fjguáketu - we two bite (here), fjguáketé - you (two or more) bite (here), fjguáketám - they two (excl. male) bite (here), fjguákctum - they two (not excl. male) bite (here), fjguákepu - we two bit (today or yesterday) (here), fjguákepé - you (two or more) bit (today etc.) (here), fjguákePám - they two (male) bit (today etc.) (here), fjgttákepum - they two (not excl. male) bit (today etc.) (here), fjguákekU - we two bit (here), fjguákeké - you (two or more) bit (here), fjguákekám - they two (male) bit (here), fjguákekum - they two (not excl. male) bit (here).

If compared with the corresponding Singular forms, these forms, too, show the morpheme -ke-. But we also find an accent on the vowel of the Actor morpheme of each of them. There appears to be a mIe saying that in Dual forms, corresponding with Singular forms which have an accent only on the root-morpheme, there is an accent on the vowel of the Actor morpheme.

34. The Flrst + Second Person Dnal.

Finally, we can add to the Dual forms of § 32 and § 33 the following:

fjguákedám - we will bite (here), fjguáketám - we bite (here), f3guákepám - we bit (today or yesterday) (here), fjguákekám - we bit (here), fjguákebarám - we will bi te above, fjguákebám - we bi te (bit) above, t}guákebakám - we bit above, t}guáket}arám - we will bite below, t}guákeke"ám - we bite (bit) below, etc., etc.

The "we" in the given translations asks for further description. For the element of meaning involved is "singnlar speaker together with dnalor pInral person addressed" or "dnalof pInral speaker together with the person addressed (regardless of the latter's number)". The forms are similar to those of the Third Person Masculine Dnal, as they have the Number morpheme -keand the Actor morpheme -am, but differ from them in many cases by always having an accent on the a of the Actor morpheme so that only in the First Position forms and in the Present - Recent Past forms of the other Position categories there is complete identity. The formal opposition with the First + Second Person Singnlar forms consists in the difference between the morpheme -mat}- of the latter and the morpheme -ke- 111 the forms under discussion.

This, again, is a productive category which, because of its formal characteristics, must be added to the Actor categories of the Dua!. We caU it the category of the First + Second Person Dua!.

The formal description given above also applies, m u t a t i s m u t a n dis, to the First + Second Person Dual forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories, e.g. :

priPkebedám - we will throw from above to here,

pripkesetám - we throw from here to there,

priPkesePim - we threw (today or yesterday) from here to below,

pripkenekim - we threw from here to far away,

pripkekendim - we will throw from above to here or from far

away to here,

pripkebantám - we throw from below to here,

pripkesampám - we threw (today or yesterday) from there to here,

pripkebenakám - we threw from below (etc.) to above,

pripkesenanám - we throw (threw) from below to there,

pripkekeneném - we throw (threw) from above (etc.) to far away,

priPkeseneném - we throw (threw) from above (etc.) to below (etc.).

35. The Root-morpheme in the Dua. and Singular forrns.

The formal relations between Singnlar and Dual forms of many verbs is a bit more intricate than appears from the examples given in the §§ 32 to 34. For instance, we find, corresponding with the Dual forms:

dykedu - we two will roast (here), dykedé - you (two or more) will roast (here), etc.,

the Singular forms:

dyedu - I will roast (here), dyede - you will roast (here), dyedam - he will roast (here), dyedum - she (it) will roast (here), dyemandám - you and I will roast (here).

In other Position categories we find, corresponding with the Dual forms dykebáru etc., dykefjáru etc., dykesártt etc., dykenáru etc., the Singular forms dyebáru etc., dyefjártt etc., dyesáru etc., dyenáru etc. We see that in all Singular forms the root-morpheme is different from that found in the Dual forms, as it has the vowel-c1uster ye in the former and the single vowel y in the latter. This appears to be a general rule for all verbs having, in the Dual forms, a root-morpheme ending in -y, e.g. :

fjgykedu - we two will split (here), etc., but

fjgyedu - I will split (here), etc.;

hrykedu - we two will scream (here), etc., but

hr!Jedu - I will scream (here), etc.;

hrykedu - we two will abduct (here), etc., but

hr!Jedu - I will abduct (here), etc.

Because - as will be shown c1early in our further description - the form of the root-morpheme found in the Singular forms is much more limited in its possibilities of occurrence than the form found in the Dual forms, we take the latter as a norm for the root-morpheme.

The form of the root-morpheme occurring in Singular forms we caU the Singular Stem of the root-morpheme. v.,' ether a root-morpheme has a special Singular Stem or not, only depends from its phonemical structure. The rule appears to be: All root-morphemes have the same form in both Dual and Singular forms, except:

a. root-morphemes ending in -y. These have a Singular Stem ending in -Ye. (See the instanees given above).

b. root-morphemes ending in -}rtj. These have a Singular Stem ending in -YI1't3. E.g.:

dyfjkedu - we two will tie together (here), dyendu - I will tie together (here), kY'rJkedu - we two will fling down (here), kyendu - I wiIl fling down (here), dyfjkedu - we two will remember (here), dyendu - I will remember (here), pY'rJkedu - we two will flatulate (here), pyendu - I will flatulate (here).

c. root-morphemes ending in -éy. These have a Singular Stem ending in -Ye. E.g.:

kréykedu - we two will walk around in search (here), kryedu - I will walk around in search (here), 'fJgedéykedu - we two will fasten (here), 'fJgedyedu - I will fasten (here), 'fJgréykedu - we two will press (here), 'fJgryedu - I will press (here).

d. root-morphemes ending in -áu. These have a Singular Stem ending in -uá. E.g.: Páukedu - we two will wind (here), puádu - I will wind (here), 'fJgedáukedu - we two will shave (here), 'fJgeduádu - I will shave (here).

e. root-morphemes ending in -uáu. These have a Singular Stem ending in -uá. E.g.: kruáukedu - we two will begin (here), kruádu - I will begin (here), uáukedu - we two will grate (here), uádu - I will grate (here).

f. root-morphemes ending in -óu. These having a Singular Stem ending in -uo. E.g.:

'Yjgedóukedu - we two will draw (here), 'Yjgeduodu - I will draw (here), póukedu - we two will blow (here), puodu - I will blow (here), tróukedu - we two will look over (here), truodu - I will look over (here). g. root-morphemes ending in -uóu. These have a Singular Stem ending in -uá. E.g.: tuóukedu - we two will cut down (here), tuádu - I will cut down (here), uóukedu - we two will wash out (here), uádu - I will wash out (here), 'Yjguóukedu - we two will prepare (sago) (here), 'Yjguádu - I will prepare (sago) (here). h. root-morphemes ending in -áo. These have a Singular Stem ending in -uá. E.g.: betáokedu - we two will pull out (here), betuádu - I will pull out (here), dekáokedu - we two will bind (here), dekuádu - I will bind (here), káokedu - we two will conceal (here), kuádu - I will conceal (here). j. root-morphemes ending in -uáo. These have a Singular Stem ending in -uá. E.g.: tJgruáokedu - we two will string (here), tJgruádu - I will string (here). k. root-morphemes ending in -áotJ. These have a Singular Stem ending in -uátJ. E.g.: sáotJkedu - we two will water (here), suándu - I will water (here), káotJkedu - we two will put (here), kuándu - I will put (here). Z. root-morphemes ending in -éi. These have a Singular Stem ending in -w. E.g. :

fJéikedû - we two will tear (here), fJiádtt - I will tear (here), préikedû - we two will sow (here), priádu - I will sow (here), péikedû - we two will pour out (here), piádu - I will pour out (here). m. root-morphemes ending in -éifJ. These have a Singular Stem ending in -iáfJ. E.g. : tefjgéifJkedû - we two will cut (here), tCfJgiándu - I will cut (here), tenéifJkedû - we two will peel (here), teniándu - I will peel (here), tenéifJkedû - we two will appear (here), teniándu - I will appear (here). n. root-morphemes ending in -yéi. These have a Singular Stem ending in -yá. E.g. : tekyéikedû - we two will crush (here), tekyádu - I will crush (here), fJyéikedû - we two will stir (here), fJyádu - I will stir (here), mCfJgyéikedû - we two will tie together (here), mCfJgyádu - I will tie together (here). If the y of -yéi of the root-morpheme is immediately preceded by avowel, the Singular Stem ends in -yiá, e.g. : tayéikedû - we two will dig up (here), tayiádu - I will dig up (here). o. root-morphemes ending in -yéifJ. These have a Singular Stem ending in -yáfJ. E.g.: tyéifJkedû - we two will work (the ground) (here), tyándu - I will work (the ground) (here). p. root-morphemes ending in -i. These have a Singular Stem ending in -ie. E.g. : drikedû - we two will defecate (here), driedu - I will defecate (here).

q. root-morphemes ending in -i1j. These have a Singular Stem ending in -iefj. E.g.: 1jgri1jkedu - we two will pull (here), 1jgriendu - I will pull (here), tri1jkedu - we two will dig (here), triendu - I will dig (here), 1jgesi1jkedu - we two will wipe off (here), 1jgesiendu - I will wipe off (here). r. root-morphemes ending in -ti. These have a Singular Stem ending in -ie. E.g.: riikedu - we two will pack (here), riedu - I will pack (here), triikedu - we two will break (here), triedu - I will break (here). 36. The category of the Plural. Opposed to: 1jguáku - I bit (here), and 1jguákeku - we two bit (here), we find the form 1jguáiku - we bit (here). Opposed to: 1jguákam - he bit (here), and 1jguákekám - they two bit (here), we find 1jguáikam - they bit (here). In the same way we find in the Recent Past category, opposed to 1jguáPu and 1jguákepû: 1jguáipu - we bit (here), and opposed to 1jguápam and 1jguákepám: 1jguáipam - they bit (here). With the same semantical opposition we find opposed to: 1jguádu and 1jguákedu: 1jguáidiu, 1jguátu and 1jguáketu: 1jguáitiu, 1jguádam and 1jguákedám: 1jguáidiam, 1jguátam and 1jguáketám: 1jguáitiam, 1jguábáru and 1jguákebáru: 1jguáibáru, 1jguábáram and 1jguákebáram: 1jguáibáram, 1jguábáu and 1jguákebáu: 1jguáibáu, f3guábám and f3guákebám: f3guáibam,

f3guábáku and f3guákebáku: f3guáibáku,

f3guábákam and f3guákebákam: f3guáibálwm,

f3guáf3áru and f3guáketJáru: f3guáif3aru,

'f3guátJáram and f3guákef3áram: f3guái~ram,

f3guákef3áU and f3guákekef3áu: f3guáikef3á1t,

f3guákef3ám and f3guákekef3ám: f3guáikef3ám,

f3guáf3áku and f3guákef3áku: f3guáif3áku,

f3guá~kam and f3guáketJákam: f3guái~kam,

f3guásáru and f3guákesáru: f3guáisiáru,

f3guásáram and f3guákesáram: f3guáisiáram,

f3guásáu and f3guákesáu: f3guáisiáu,

f3guásám and f3guákesám: f3guáisiám,

f3guásáku and f3guákesáku: f3guáisiáku,

f3guásákam and f3guákesákam: f3guáisiákam,

f3guánáru and f3guákenánt: f3guáiniáru,

f3guánáram and f3guákenáram: f3guáiniáram,

f3guánáu and f3guákenáu: f3guáiniáu,

f3guánám and f3guákenám: f3guáiniám,

'f3guánáku and f3guákenáku: f3guáiniáku,

f3guánákam and f3guákenákam: f3guáiniákam.

In the same way, we find opposed to:

uódu and uókedu: uóidiu - we will dibble (here),

uódam and uókedám: uóidiam - they will dibble (here),

bekádu and bekákedu: bekáidiu - we will kick (here),

bekádam and bekákedám: bekáidiam - they will kick (here),

tef3gándu and tef3gáf3kedû: tef3gáindiu - we will knock (here),

tef3gándam and tef3gáf3kedám: tef3gáindiam - they will knock (here),

f3grundu and f3gruf3kedu: f3grttinditt - we will hang up (here),

'f3grundam and f3gruf3kedám: tJgruindiam - they will hang up (here).

All the new forms, introduced here, appear to be members of a productive category. Formally, all members of this category are characterized by an -iimmediately following the last vowel of the root-morpheme, whereas, if the first vowel following the root-morpheme is immediately preceded by a consonant which is not velar, labial, or T, a second i is found in between that vowel and the preceding consonant. The semantical element common to all this words is "piurality of the actor". In the case of forms with the Actor morpheme -u the meaning is "the action is attributed to the speaker and two or more others, not inc1uding the person(s) addressed, as an actor". In the case of forms having the actor morpheme -am the meaning is "the action is attributed to more than two persons or things in which neither the speaker(s) nor the person(s) addressed are inc1uded, as an actor". To this must be remarked that, unlike what was found with Singular and Dual forms, differences of sex do not play a role here. We eaU these forms First Person Plural and Tbird Person Plural respectively; the whole category to which they belong is caUed the Plu ral category. This category is in opposition with those of Singular and Dual and, therefore, is of the Order of the Number of the Actor.

37. The fonn of the root-morpheme In Plural fonns.

Corresponding with kryedu - I will walk around in search (here), and kréykedu - we two will walk around in search (here), we find kryidiu - we will walk around in search (here). In this case the formal difference between the Plural form and the Singular and Dual forms is more than that described in § 36, as in the Plural form the e of the root-morpheme is lacking. Precisely the same is found not only in all other Plural forms of tbis verb but also in the Plural forms of all other verbs having in their Dual forms a root-morpheme ending in -éy, e.g.:

'fjgedéyketu - we two fasten (here),

'fjgedyitiu - we fasten here,

péyke'fjákam - they two bailed below,

pyi'fjákam - they bailed below,

'fjgetéykesám - they two (masc.) rub there,

'fjgetyisiam - they rub there.

I t is clear that this peculiarity has something to do with the phonemical structure of the root-morpheme. As more peculiarities of this kind are found, the rule about the formal characteristics of the Plural category asks for an addition. I t appears that the following rules must be added :

a. root-morphemes ending in -éy have -yi in Plural forms.

Examples are already given above.

b. root-morphemes ending in -ie have -iéi (with shifted accent) In Plural forms, e.g.:

biekedu - we two will open (here), biéidiu - we will open (here), siekedû, - we two will twist (here), siéidiu - we will twist (here). c. root-morphemes ending in -ye1j have -yi1j in Plural forms, e.g. : krye1jkedu - we two will ring (here), kryindiu - we will ring (here). d. root-morphemes ending in -ye have -yi in Plural forms, e.g.: tyekedám - they two (masc.) will push (here), tyidiam - they will push (here). e. root-morphemes ending in -ii have -ii in Pin ral forms, e.g.: riikedu - we two will pack (here), riidiu - we will pack (here). f. root-morphemes ending in -éi have -éi in Plural forms, e.g.: 1jéikedu - we two will tear (here), 1jéidiu - we will tear (here), préiketu - we two sow (here), préitiu - we sow (here), mC1jgyéiketu - we two tie together (here), me1jgyéitiu - we tie together (here). g. root-morphemes ending in -éi1j have -éi1j in Plu ral forms, e.g. : 1jgyéi1jketu - we two shake (here), 13gyéintiu - we shake (here), te1jgéi1jketu - we two cut (here), tC1jgéintiu - we cut (here), syéi1jketu - we two chop (here), syéintiu - we chop (here). h. root-morphemes ending in -ái have -ái in Plural forms, e.g.: áiketu - we two shout (here), áitiu - we shout (here). J. root-morphemes ending in -uo have -ui in Plural forms, e.g.:

buokelÛ - we two hang out (here), buitiu - we hang out (here), ne~gûoketu - we two swallow (here), n~guitiu - we swallow (here). Root-morphemes ending in -uó follow the normal pattern, e.g.: uókeIÛ - we two row (here), uóitiu - we row (here). k. root-morphemes ending in -áo shift their accent and have -aói in Plu ral forms, e.g. : betáoketu - we two pull out (here), betaóitiu - we pull out (here), dekáokelÛ - we two bind together (here), dekaóitiu - we bind together (here), kráoketu - we two demolish (here), kraóitiu - we demolish (here). I. root-morphemes ending in -áo~ have -aói~, with shift of accent, in Plural forms, e.g.: sá~ketu - we two water (here), saóintiu - we water (here). m. root-morphemes en ding in -óu have -ói in Plural forms, e.g. : póuketu - we two blow (here), póitiu - we blow (here), dróuketu - we two bath (here), dróitiu - we bath (here), tuóuketu - we two cut down (here), tuóitiu - we cut down (here). n. root-morphemes ending in -áu in which the a is not immediately preceded by u have -ói in Plural forms, e.g.: páukeIÛ - we two wind (here), póitiu - we wind (here), ~gedáuketu - we two shave (here), ~gedóitiu - we shave (here).

o. root-morphemes ending in -uáu have -uái in Plural forms, e.g. : uáuketu - we two grate (here), uáitiu - we grate (here), kruáuketu - we two begin (here), kruáitiu - we begin (here).

p. root-morphemes ending in -áb have -ái in Plural forms, e.g. : siápketu - we two pour out (here), siáitiu - we pour out (here), skápketu - we two squeeze (here), skáitiu - we squeeze (here).

q. root-morphemes ending in -éb have -éi or -éb in Plural forms. The two forms are in free variation. E.g.: pépketu - we two peel (here), péitiu or péptiu - we peel (here).

r. root-morphemes ending in -ib have -ti or -ib in Plural forms. These two forms are in free variation. E.g.: besipketu - we two bend (here), besiitiu or besiptiu - we bend (here), pripkeM - we two throw (here), priitiu or priptiu - we throw (here).

s. root-morphemes ending in -yb have -yi or -yib in Plural forms. These two forms are in free variation. E.g. : iypketu - we two shut off (here), iyititt or iyiptiu - we shut off (here), pYPketu - we two stab (here), pyitiu or pyiptiu - we stab (here), betypketu - we two throw away (here), betyitiu or betyiptiu - we throw away (here).

t. root-morphemes en ding in -ub have -!ti or -Itib in Plural forms. These two forms are in free variation. E.g.: brupketu - we two fold (here), bruitiu or bruiptiu - we fold (here), hrupketu - we two suck (here), hruitiu or hrûiptiu - we suck (here).

38. Plural forms of the Slxth to Slxteenth Posltion category.

In § 36 we saw the Plural forms of the First to Fifth Position category. The Plural forms found in the other Position categories appear to follow the same rules, e.g. :

(Sixth) prîibetu - we throw from here to above, (Seventh) priisietu - we throw from here to there, (Eighth) priisietim - they throw from here to below, (Ninth) priinietim - they throw from here to far away, (Tenth) priikenty - we throw from above (from far away) to here, (Eleventh) priibántu - we throw from be10w to here, (Twelfth) priisiántam - they throw from there to here, (Thirteenth) priibenanáu - we throw from below (etc.) to above, (Fourteenth) priisienanám - they throw from below to there, (Fifteenth) priikenenéy - we throw from above (etc.) to far away, (Sixteenth) priisieneném - they throw from above to below (etc.).

However, there is one exception to this ruIe: si de by si de with the reguIar, predictabIe, forms of the Tenth Position category:

priikendy, priikendim, priikenty, priikentim, priikempy, priikemPim, priikefjky, priikefjkim,

there occur, as free variants, forms having an i immediately following the k of the Position morpheme:

priikiendy, priikiendim, priikienty, priikientim, priikiempy, priikiemPim, priikiefjky, priikiefjkim.

This is contradictory to the ruIe, as formulated in § 36.

39. lteratlve forms of the Fint Posltlon category. The lteratlve category and the Momentary category.

Verh. dl. 44 7

In opposition with the forms:

"guátu - I bite (here), 'Jguámantám - you and I bite (here), "guáketu - we two bite (here), "guáitiu - we bite (here),

(and other forms of the Present - First Position categories), we find:

f3guákátu - I bite repeatedly (here), "guámat)katám - you and I bite repeatedly (here), t)guákekátu - we two bite repeatedly (here), t)guáikátu - we bite repeatedly (here), (etc.).

In the same way, we find opposed to t)guáPu - I bit (today, yesterday) (here), (etc.); t)guákápu - I bit repeatedly (today, yesterday) (here), (etc.). And, opposed to f3guáku - I bit (here), etc., there is 'Jguákáku - I bit repeatedly (here), etc.

All these new forms constitute a productive category whose members are characterized by the formal element -kaimmediately preceding the Tense morpheme. The a of this -kahas an accent, except in the First + Second Person forms which have an accent on the Actor morpheme.

The semantical element common to these words is "repeatedness of the action" ; sometimes it may be described as "successiveness of the action" (if the actor is plural), e.g. f3guáikákam - they bit repeatedly, or: they bit one af ter another.

This category we call the Iterative category.

Of course, the forms which are not formally characterized and are in opposition with the Iterative forms also constitute a category whose members have in common the semantical element "the action is continuous, uninterrupted, or confined to one moment". This we call the 110mentary category.

No ka- -forms are found corresponding with the Future forms (without -ka-). So in the Iterative category, Tense categories are limited to Present, Recent Past, and Past.

40. Iteratlve fonns of the other Positlon categories.

The members of the Iterative category belonging to Position categories other than the First show some peculiarities in their forms which will be treated here.

Opposed to: 7Jguábáku - I bit above, 7Jguákebáku - we two bit above, 7Jguáibáku - we bit above, etc. we find: 7Jguábekáku - 1 bit repeatedly above, 7Jguákebekáku - W.c: two bit repeatedly above, 7Jguáibekáku - we bit repeatedly above, etc.

We see that in the Iterative forms the morpheme of the Second Position category is -be-.

J ust like the Momentary forms of the Position categories of the second group (see § 30) the corresponding Iterative forms show no opposition between Present and Recent Past. But the morpheme of the Present - Recent Past tense appears to be -tin the Iterative forms (not zero like in the Momentary forms), e.g. :

7Jguábekátu - I bite (bit) repeatedly above, 7Jguámambekatám - you and I bite (bit) repeatedly above, 7Jguákebekátu - we two bite (bit) repeatedly above, 7Jguáibekátu - we bite (bit) repeatedly above.

The Iterative forms of the Third Position category are:

Present - Recent Past 7Jguá7Jgátu - I bite (bit) repeatedly below, etc. Past tense 7Jguá7Jgáku - I bit repeatedly below, etc.

In these forms the Position morpheme is -7J-, whereas the Iterative morpheme is -g-.

The only format peculiarity of the Iterative forms of the Fourth Position category is their Position morpheme which is -S-, e.g.:

7Jguáskátu - I bite (bit) repeatedly there, 7Jguáskáku - I bit repeatedly there.

The combination of the morphemes of the Iterative and of the Fifth

Position category appear to result in -nefjgaas the forms in question are:

fjguánefjgátu - I bite (bit) repeatedly far away, fjguánefjgáku - I bit repeatedly far away, etc.

The Iterative forms of the Sixth Position category do not show any peculiar features, e.g.:

pribekátu - I throw repeatedly from here to above, pribekápu - I threw (today, yesterday) repeatedly from here to above, pribekáku - I threw repeatedly from here to above.

They are the same as the corresponding forms of the Second Position category except for the forms with ten se morpheme -thaving for the Sixth Position category only the meaning of the Present ten se, as in this Position category there is a separate Recent Past tense.

The Iterative forms of the Seventh Position category are the same as those of the Fourth Position category, except for the existence of a separate Recent Past tense, e.g.:

pripskátu - I throw repeatedly from here to there,

priPskáPu - I threw (today, yesterday) repeatedly from here to there,

pripskáku - I threw repeatedly from here to there.

In the Eighth Position category we find Iterative forms like:

pripskéty - I throw repeatedly from here to below,

pribmensketim - you and I throw repeatedly from here to below, priPkeskéty - we two throw repeatedly from here to below, priiskéty - we throw repeatedly from here to below, pripsképy - I threw (today, yesterday) repeatedly from here to below, pripskéky - I threw repeatedly from here to below, etc.

We see that in all these forms the Iterative morpheme has the vowel e. This appears to be the case in all forms with Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. In the Iterative forms as in the Momentary forms, the formal opposition between the Seventh and Eighth Position categories consists in difference of vowels only.

MORPHOLOGY 101 to here,

In the Ninth Position category we find Iterative forms like:

pribnefJgéty - I throw repeatedIy from here to far away,

pribnerjgéPy - I threw (today, yesterday) repeatedIy from here to far away,

pribnerjgéky - I threw repeatedIy from here to far away.

The difference between the I terative forms of this Position category and those of the Fifth consists in different vowels and the existence of a separate Recent Past tense.

In the Tenth Position category we find Iterative forms like:

prifjgenty - I throw repeatedIy from above (far away) to here,

prifjgempy - I threw (today, yesterday) repeatedIy from above (far

away) to here,

prirjgefJk}' - I threw repeatedIy from above (far away) to here, etc.

In these forms the Iterative morpheme and the Position morpheme appear to result in the formal element -fjgcfj-. This element does not have an accent. J ust as in the Momentary forms, there is always an accent on the Actor morpheme. A striking feature of the given exampies is the absence of the final -b of the root-morpheme. The same is found in all Iterative Tenth Position forms of verbs that normally have their root-morpheme en ding in -b, e.g.:

betYf3gentim - he throws away repeatedIy from above to here,

if compared with the corresponding Momentary form:

betYPkentim - he throws away from above to here.

The mIe appears to be that all root-morphemes which end in -b drop this b if they are immediately followed (within the word) by a consonant cluster beginning with a nasa!.

As Iterative forms of the Eleventh Position category we find:

pribekántu - I throw repeatedIy from below to here,

pribekámpu - I threw (today, yesterday) repeatedIy from below

prîbekáfjku - I threw repeatedIy from below to here, etc.

On ground of these forms one might say that the element -baf3- that in § 24 was indicated as the morpheme of the Eleventh Position category consist of an element -ba- (that behaves in precise1y the same way as the morpheme of the Second Position category) and an element -13- and that in the Iterative forms these two elements are separated by the Iterative morpheme. One might also say that the morpheme of the Iterative is infixed in the morpheme of the Position category.

A similar phenomenon is found with the Iterative forms of the TweHth Position category, e.g.:

priPskántu - I throw repeatedly from there to here,

pripskámpu - I threw (today, yesterday) repeatedly from there

to here, away) to above, to above. there) to far away,

pripskáf3ku - I threw repeatedly from there to here, etc.

Here the Position morpheme -saf3- is split by the infixed Iterative morpheme.

The Iterative forms of the Thirteenth Position category are comparabIe with those of the Fifth Position category, e.g.:

pribenefjgátu - I throw (threw) repeatedly from be10w (there, far

pribenefjgáku - I threw repeatedly from be10w (there, far away)

The same can be said of the Iterative forms of the Fourteenth Position category, e.g.:

pripsenef3gátu - I throw (threw) repeatedly from below to there, pripsenef3gáktt - I threw repeatedly from below to there.

The same comparability in form with the Iterative forms of the • Fifth Position category is found with the Iterative forms of the Fifteenth Position category, e.g.:

pripkenef3géty - I throw (threw) repeatedly from above (below,

far away.

pripkenef3géky - I threw repeatedly from above (below, there) to

The e-variant, occurring here instead of the a-variant, is due to the fact that the Actor morphemes are of the Apophonic series (cf. what is said about this with reference to the Eighth Position category in this §).

The Iterative forms of the Sixteenth Position category are fully comparable with those of the Fifteenth Position category, e.g.:

pripsenefjgéty - I throw (threw) repeatedly from above (there, far away) to below, from above (far away) to there, pripsenefjgéky - I threw repeatedly from above to below, etc.

41. The Mascullne Object category.

Opposed to the series: we find the series: sltáfjrebáru - I will water him above, etc., sáofjkrebáru - we two will water him above, etc., saóifjrebáru - we will water him above, etc.

suámbáru - I will water above, etc., sáofjkebáru - we two will water above, etc., saóimbáru - we will water above, etc.,

In the same way we find in other Tenses, as opposed to suámbáu etc. and suámbáku etc.:

suáfjrebáu - I water (watered) him above, etc., suáfjrebáku - I watered him above, etc.

In other Position categories, opposed to suáfjáru etc., suáfjketJáu etc., suánsáru etc., suánáru etc., we find:

suáfjrefjáru - I will water him below, etc., suá'JreketJáu - I water (watered) him be10w etc., suá'Jresáru - I will water him there, etc., suá'Jrenáru - I will water him far away, etc.

Here we find members of a productive category, formally marked by the element -rewhich has its place immediately following the root-morpheme except in those forms which contain the Dual morpheme -kewhich then precedes the element -reand takes the form -k-.

The common semantical element can be described as "the action is connected with an object, consisting of one or two male beings, not identical with the speaker or the person addressed". If the object is explicitly mentioned or not, does not make any difference for the use of these -re- -forms. We call this category the category of the Masculine Object.

The Masculine Object forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories answer fully to the description given above, e.g.:

pribrebedu - I wilt throw him from here to above, pribreseté - you throw him from here to there, pribresenanám - he throws (threw) him from below to there.

But the corresponding Momentary forms of the First Position category show some peculiarities:

suá1Jráru - I will water him (here), etc., suáfJremandám - you and I will water him (here), etc., sáofJkráru - we two wilt water him (here), etc., saóifJráru - we wilt water him (here), etc., suáfJrátu - I water him (here), etc., suáfJráPu - I watered him here (today, yesterday), etc., suáfJráku - I watered him (here), etc.

We see that the Masculine Object morpheme is -rawith an accent on the a, if immediately preceding the Tense morpheme. In the case of Future forms the Tense morpheme is -r-.

The Masculine Object forms of the Iterative all follow the rule given above, e.g.:

suátyekátu - I water him repeatedly (here), sáofjkrebekáke - you (du.) watered him repeatedly above, saóityeskátam - they water him there repeatedly, pribrCfjgentim - he throws him repeatedly from above to here. 42. The Plural Object category. Opposed to the series: suándu - I will water (here), etc. etc. and the series: suátyáru - I will water him (here), etc. etc. we find the following forms: sáondáru - I will water them (here), sáondáre - you will water them (here), sáondáram - he will water them (here), sáondárum - she (it) will water them (here), sáondemandám - you and I will water them (here), saóindiáru - we (we two) will water them (here), saóindiáre - you (you two) will water them (here), saóindiáram - they (they two, masc.) will water them (here), saóindiárum - they two (non-masc.) will water them (here), saóindiarám - you and I (you and we) will water them (here). Opposed to: suámbáru - I will water above, etc., suáfjrebáru - I will water him above, etc., we find: sáondebáru - I will water them above, etc. For other Tenses and other Position categories we find:

sáondátu - 1 water them (here), sáondebáu - 1 water (watered) them above, sáondefjáru - 1 will water them below, sáondesáru - 1 will water them there, sáondenáru - 1 will water them far away, pribdebedû - 1 will throw them from here to above, pripdesedu - 1 will throw them from here to there, etc. etc.

There also are the corresponding Iterative forms:

sáondekátu - 1 water them repeatedly (here), saóindiekátu - we (we two) water them repeatedly (here), saóindiekáte - you (dual or plural) water them repeatedly (here), saóindiekátam - they (they two, masc.) water them repeatedly (here), saóindiekátum - they two (non-masc.) water them repeatedly (here), saóindiekatám - you and 1 (you and we) water them repeatedly (here), sáondebekátu - 1 water (watered) them repeatedly above, sáondCfjgátu - 1 water (watered) them repeatedly below, pribdefjgenty - 1 throw them repeatedly from above to here, etc.

All these new forms belong to a productive category whose members have in common the semantica I element "the action is connected with a plu ral object". Formally, the members are characterized by an element -dethat immediately follows the root-morpheme and takes the form -dawhenever it is immediately followed by the Tense morpheme.

This category we call the Plural Object category. It is in opposition with the Masculine Object category and also with those verbal forms which are not marked as to object. These unmarked forms are used, if the speaker thinks the action connected with a singular or dual object which does not consist of one or two male beings, but also if the action is not thought being connected with any object. These unmarked forms constitute the category of the Unspecified Object.

The members of the Plural Object category ask for further discussion. The first striking fact about them is that with those verbs which have a special Singular stem for the Unspecified Object and Masculine Object forms (see § 35) this special form of the rootmorpheme does not occur in Plu ral Object forms. Further, it must be observed that all non-Singular forms have the -iwhich we came to knowas Plural marker and also the special form of the rootmorpheme which belongs to Plural forms. However, as far as their meaning is concerned, they are no typical Plural Actor forms, as they may have the meaning of Dual Actor, in the case of the Third Person Neutral even exclusively so. In the Plural Object category there is no opposition between Dual and Plural of the Actor, except with the non-masculine Third Person for which there is a separate form having only Dual meaning, whereas there is only one form for both Third Person Plural (regardless of sex) and Third Person Dual Masculine.

As to the meaning of the members of the Plural Object category, is must be remarked that in case of a dual object (not including the speaker or the person addressed) the speaker has a free choice between forms of this category and those of the Unspecified Object or Masculine Object categories.

43. The Durative category.

To priptu - I throw (here), and all the other Present forms with root-morpheme pribwhich we have seen in the preceding §§ the following forms can be opposed:

priptemty - I am throwing (here), priptemti - you are throwing (here), priptemtim - he is throwing (here), priptemtym - she (it) is throwing (here), priptementîm - you and I are throwing (here), priitiemty - we (we two) are throwing (here), priitiemti - you (du., plur.) are throwing (here), priitiemtim - they (they two, masc.) are throwing (here), priitiemtym - they two (non-masc.) are throwing (here), priitiemtim - you and I (you and we) are throwing (here), priptembéy - I am throwing above, etc. priptemembém - you and I are throwing above, priitiembéy - we (we two) are throwing above, etc., priptemkefjéy - I am throwing below, etc., priptemséy - I am throwing there, etc., priptemnéy - I am throwing far away, etc., priptembety - I am throwing from here to above, etc., priptemsety - I am throwing from here to there, etc., priptemsety - I am throwing from here to below, etc., priptemnety - I am throwing from here to far away, etc., priptemkenty - I am throwing from above (from far away) to here, etc., priptembénty - I am throwing from below to here, etc., priptemsénty - I am throwing from there to here, etc., priptembenenéy - I am throwing from below (there, far away) to etc., above, priptemsenenéy - I am throwing from below to there, etc., priptemkenenéy - I am throwing from above (there, below) to far etc., away, priptemsenenéy - I am throwing from above (there, far away) to etc. below, from above (far away) to there,

All these forms belong to a productive category who se members are characterized by the formal element -temwhich has its place immediately following the root-morpheme, and Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. The semantical element they have in common is "the action continues". We call this category the Durative category.

In the Durative category there is no formal opposition between forms for dual Actor and those for Plural Actor, except for the Third Person Neutral, whereas all non-Singular forms are, formally, Plu ral forms, just like what we found in the Plu ral Object category. From forms like sáontemty - I am watering (here), it appears that those verbs which have a special Singular stem in the Unspecified Object and Masculine Object category, do not show this special form of the root-morpheme in the Singular forms of the Durative. This also is parallel to what is found in the Plu ral Object category.

The Durative category is in opposition not only with the category of the Unspecified Object but also with the Masculine Object and Plural Object categories and, therefore, is of the same order. Though this is seldom the case, an object may be mentioned in a sentence in which the predicate is a Durative form. This object, however, does not have any influence on the verb-form, in other words: Durative forms are indifferent to sex or number of the object.

It might be said that the Durative category is opposed to the whole group of non-Durative categories in which the opposition of the three object categories plays a role. But on purely formal grounds the Durative category can be seen in one !ine with the categories of Unspecified Object, Masculine Object, and Plural Object.

It must be observed that those Position categories whose mutual formal opposition in the categories of Unspecified, Masculine, and Plu ral Object consists only in the difference of the vowels of the Actor morphemes, lack this formal difference in the Durative forms, as these all have Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. The result is that there is no formal difference between the Seventh and the Eighth or between the Fourteenth and the Sixteenth Position categories in the Durative forms.

In most cases also the forms of the First + Second Person and the Third Person Plural are the same, because all Actor morphemes have the accent, except those of the Eleventh and Twelfth Position categories in which this is only the case with First + Second Person forms. In these two Position categories there is a formal difference between the First + Second Person and Third Person Plural forms, e.g.:

priitiembéntim - they are throwing from below to here,

priitiembentim - you and we are throwing from below to here,

priitiemséntim - they are throwing from there to here,

priitiemsentim - you and we are throwing from there to here.

44. Jf.erative fOnDS of the Durative.

Corresponding with the Durative forms of § 43 there are also Iterative forms:

priptemkéty - I am throwing repeatedly (here),

priptembekéty - I am throwing repeatedly above,

priptemtjgéty - I am throwing repeatedly below,

priptemskéty - I am throwing repeatedly there,

priptemnetjgéty - I am throwing repeatedly far away,

priptembekéty - I am throwing repeatedly from here to above,

priptemskéty - I am throwing repeatedly from here to there, priptemskéty - I am throwing repeatedly from here to below, priptemnefjgéty - I am throwing repeatedly from here to far away, priptemfjkénty - I am throwing repeatedly from above (far away) to here,

priptemskénty - I am throwing repeatedly from there to here,

priptembekénty - I am throwing repeatedly from below to here,

priptembenetjgéty - I am throwing repeatedly from below (there, far away) to above,

priptemsencfjgéty - I am throwing repeatedly from below to there, priptemkenetjgéty - I am throwing repeatedly from above (below, there) to far away,

priptemsenefjgéty - I am throwing repeatedly from above (there, far away) to below, from above (far away) to there.

These forms agree with what is said about Iterative forms in § 39 and § 40 and about Durative forms in § 43. Formally, here not only the Seventh and Eighth Position categories are identical, and the Fourteenth and the Sixteenth, but also the Second and Sixth, and the Fifth and Ninth.

As free variants for the forms given above forms are used in which the Durative morpheme is -temefj-, except for the First + Second Person Singular and for the Second, Sixth, and Fifteenth Position categories. These variants are:

First Position category: priptemefjl?éty, etc.,

Third Position category: priptemcfjgéty, etc.,

Fourth, Seventh and Eighth Position categories : priptemenskéty, etc.,

Fifth and Ninth Position categories : priptemenefjgéty, etc.,

Tenth Position category: priptemcfjkénty, etc.,

Eleventh Position category: priptcmembel?énty, etc.,

Twelfth Position category: priptcmenskénty, etc.

Thirteenth Position category: priptcmentbencfjgéty, etc.,

Fourteenth and Sixteenth Position categories : priptemenscnefjgéty, etc.

Moreover, Durative Iterative forms of the Tenth and First Position categories may have g instead of the k of the Iterative morpheme, as free variants :

First Position category: priptcmgéty, etc., or priptemefjgéty, etc.,

Tenth Position category: priptcmgénty, etc., or priptemefjgénty, etc.

l\fORPHOLOGY 111

A form like priptem~géty may have the meaning "I am throwing repeatedly (here)" (First Position category) but also "I am throwing repeatedly below" (Third Position category).

For the First and Tenth Position categories the g-variants are more frequently used than those with -k-.

45. Tense categorles In the Duratlve.

Corresponding with the Present forms of the Iterative of the Durative we find Past tense forms: priptemkéky - I was throwing repeatedly (here), etc., and for the Position categories of the first group also Recent Past forms: priptemképy - I was (today, yesterday) throwing repeatedly (here), etc. But Future forms do not occur. Probably, to the Nimboran speakers' mind the categorial meaning of the Future is incompatible with that of the Durative.

In the Momentary of the Durative, however, we only find the series of forms which, in § 43, we came to knowas Present forms. And Present forms they are, both formally and semantically, but a direct opposition with other Tenses is absent.

Maybe connected with this is the fact that in the semantical opposition between Momentary and Iterative forms of the Durative elements are found which do not occur with the corresponding nonDurative forms. First, the Momentary forms (of the Durative) also have the meaning of "continuation of an action in the future". The Present forms of the Iterative of the Durative, on the contrary, have the meaning "continuation in the present of an action, begun in the past", e.g.:

dámtemty - I am eating (and will go on eating),

dámtemgéty - I am (still) eating (have not yet finished eating).

Probably connected with the absence of corresponding forms in the Momentary category is the fact that Past and Recent Past forms of the Iterative of the Durative can be used to denote a continual action in the past without any element of repetition being present.

46. The category of the Infinltlve.

Opposed to:

f3guádu - I will bi te (here),

f3guákebáu - we two bi te above,

'3guátem~gétim - he is biting repeatedly below, and all other forms of this verb, discussed so far, we find:

fjgttá - 10 (to) bite, 20 bite I, 3° bitten.

There appears to exist a whole series of such forms, e.g. :

kil3 - to pack, pack I packed.

Together, they constitute a productive category. Their formal mark is the absence of any categorial morpheme: they consist of a bare root-morpheme. The common semantical element is less easy to describe. I t appears that some heterogeneous semantical elements are found side by side, distinguishable in the different cases in which the forms in question are used:

1 ° just the absence of all the other categorial meanings, in cases like:

no po l3gttá - he wants to bite, 130 tJguá besám - I refuse to bite.

2° a curt order: tJguá - bi te I For a more polite order, a friendly request etc. the Second Person Future is used:

l3guáde - please, bite I have the goodness to bi te !

3° a state, caused by being submitted to the action, attributed to a noun :

ndie hru me tJguá - that man is already bitten, hru l3guá be ndie - the bitten man is there.

This use is the same as that of adjectives, e.g. :

ndie hru krapó - that man is bad,

hrtt krapó be ndie - the bad man is there.

This category we caB the category of the Infinitive.

The indifference of Infinitive forms in regard to the other categories is seemingly absent in cases like:

táo - to put many objects,

dáo - to give (take) many objects,

ráu - to roast many objects,

préi - to bring many objects,

as these could be thought to be connected with the Plu ral Object category. However, we must assume that these are Infinitives of verbs, having the semantical element of "many objects" as part of their lexical meaning. In the cases of táo, rátt, and préi this becomes quite c1ear from other forms which, without being Plural Object forms, still possess the plural object-element in their meaning. The fact that táo, dáo, rátt, and préi and words, morphologically related to them, are used, by way of suppletion (see Ch. I, § 10), instead of the (nonexisting) forms of the Plural Object category of téy - put, téi - take, give, déy (dy-) - roast, and a series of forms with zero root-morpheme to which belongs rebedu - I will bring from here to above, respectively, is not relevant, as the latter have no morphological connections with the first.

In the examples, cited above, the form of the Infinitive is the same as that of the root-morpheme in its combinations with the various morphemes but not the same as the special Singular or Plu ral stem, found with some root-morphemes. This appears to be the case with the great majority of Infinitive forms, e.g.:

uó - to dibble (etc.), nCfjgá - to light (etc.), tCfjgá"3 - to knock (etc.), sebuo - to sew (etc.), sam - to put inbetween (etc.), tráo - to lift (etc.), skye - to smoke (etc.), dóu - to start (etc.), bie - to open (etc.), hru"3 - to break (etc.), "3gri"3 - to draw, trail (etc.), siáb - to pour out (etc.), tCfjgéi"3 - to cut (etc.), peb - to peel (etc.), "3gedéy - to fasten (etc.), pyb - to stick (etc.), temYf3 - to stab (etc.), brub - to fold (etc.).

But in correspondence with root-morphemes, ending in -i, we find Infinitives with final -ii, e.g.:

drikedu - we two will defecate (here),

drii - to defecate (etc.).

Corresponding with root-morphemes, ending In -y we find the Infinitives ending in -éy, e.g.:

dykedu - we two will roast (here), déy - to roast (etc.).

Corresponding with root-morphemes en ding finitives ending in -Yf3, e.g.: in -ye"3 we find In8

Verh. dl. 44 krYe1jkedu - we two will ring (here), kr'Y'J - to ring (etc.).

Corresponding with root-morphemes, ending m -áol'j, we find 1nfinitives ending in -Ó"3, e.g.

sáo"3kedu - we two will water (here), s0"3 - to water (etc.).

47. The category of the Flnal Inf1nltlve.

bie - to open (etc.), buo - to hang out (etc.), muo - to make (etc.), syéil'j - to cut loose (etc.),

Opposed to the 1nfinitive forms: we find the following forms: bebie - in order to open, bebuo - in order to hang out, memuo - in order to make, sesyéi"3 - in order to cut loose.

The latter forms belong to a productive category whose members are formally characterized by the reduplication of the initial consonant with the vowel e in between but, for the rest, are the same as the 1nfinitive, as described in the preceding §. The semantica! element that is common to the members of this category is "the act ion is presented as goal, intention, or motive". An example is given here that may help to make clear the semantical opposition between this category and the 1nfinitive:

ndîe mái bie kebári temien - (this door open work big) it is a big job to open this door,

no iamó ne mái bebie ho - he goes to the house to open the door.

This category we call the category of the Fina! 1nfinitive.

The peculiarities in form of some members of this category ask for a more detailed discussion.

A Final 1nfinitive, corresponding with an 1nfinitive with word-initial

MORPHOLOGY 115 tentefJgát) - in order to knock, peprib - in order to throw, sespóu - in order to unloosen,

consonant immediately followed by an e which is immediately followed by another consonant, has the same form as that Infinitive, e.g.

bekéi - 10 to rise, 20 in order to ri se,

nefjguo - 10 to swallow, 20 in order to swallow,

refJgye - 10 to show, 20 in order to show.

A Final Infinitive, corresponding with an Infinitive which has an initial stop or s immediately followed by avowel which immediately precedes a nasalor avowel which is immediately followed by a nasal, has the initial consonant of the Infinitive doubled with, in between, the vowel e immediately followed by a nasal homorganic to that consonant, e.g.

bUfj - to wait,

bembufj - in order to wait,

dyfj - to tie together,

dendYfj - in order to tie together,

dam - to eat,

dendám - in order to eat,

kifj - to crush,

ket)kit) - in order to crush,

SOfj - to water,

sensót) - in order to water,

tCfjgáfj - to knock,

tenéifj - to peel,

tentenéifj - in order to peel,

déifj - to stretch out oneself,

dendéit) - in order to stretch out

oneself,

dóufj - to draw,

dendóut) - in order to draw.

If the initial consonant of an Infinitive is separated from a following nasal by more than two vowels, the doubled consonant of the corresponding Final Infinitive is separated byewithout nasal, e.g.

syéifj - to cut loose, sesyéifj - in order to cut loose, tyéit) - to even out (ground), tetyéit) - in order to even out.

If an Infinitive has an initial consonant-cluster, the corresponding Final Infinitive has reduplication of the first consonant only, e.g.

brub - to fold,

bebrttb - in order to fold,

drii - to defecate,

dedrii - in order to defecate,

prib - to throw,

práu - to dance,

pepráu - in order to dance,

spóu - to unloosen,

û'ab - to pinch,

seskáb - in order to pinch,

skréy - to shake,

seskréy - in order to shake,

tréy - to pursue,

tetréy - in order to pursue.

In accordance with the rule given above, the e in between the reduplicated consonant of the Final Infinitive is followed by a nasal homorganic to that consonant, if in the Infinitive the vowel, immediately following the initial consonant-cluster, is followed by a nasal, either directly or with only one vowel intervening, e.g.

kryfj - to ring, kefjkrYfj - in order to ring, tentrifj - in order to dig, trifj - to dig, skifj - to strangle, senskifj - in order to strangle, prifj - to fly, pemprifj - in order to fly.

But if the first consonant of an initial cluster of and Infinitive is fj, the Final Infinitive has the whole cluster reduplicated, e.g.

fjgedáu - to shave, fjge"Yjgedáu - in order to shave, "Yjgedéy - to attach, fjgefjgedéy - in order to attach, fjgréy - to press, fjgrefjgréy - in order to press.

If an Infinitive has initial hr-, the h is dropped and the r is reduplicated in the Final Infinitive, e.g.

hréy - to scream, reréy - in order to scream, hri - to go down, reri - in order to go down, hrub - to suck, rerub - in order to suck, hrufj - to break, rerufj - in order to break.

If an Infinitive has initial a, the corresponding Final Infinitive has the same form as the Infinitive, e.g.

ái - to shriek, ái - in order to shriek, apiá"Yj - 10 to fill up, 20 in order to fill up.

If an Infinitive has initial i immediately followed by a consonant, this i is doubled in the corresponding Final Infinitive, e.g.

iró - to fill, iiró - in order to fill, i"Yjgáo - to wash, iifjgáo - in order to wash, isiu - to shake, iisiu - in order te shake.

If an Infinitive has initial i immediately followed by avowel, this i is reduplicated with an e in between in the corresponding Final Infinitive, e.g.

iáo - to mb, ieiáo - in order to rub, iási1J - to bathe, ieiási1J - in order to bathe.

If an Infinitive has initial u, this u is doubled in the corresponding Final Infinitive, except if the initial 1t of the Infinitive is immediately followed by a second u in which case the Final Infinitive has the same shape as the Infinitive, e.g.

uáu - to rasp, utláu - in order to rasp, uó - to dibble, uuó - in order to dibble, uó/t - to row, uuóu - in order to row, Ult1J - to weed, uU1J - in order to weed, uuo - in order to answer. uuo - to answer,

If an Infinitive has initial y, the corresponding Final Infinitive has an ti immediately following this y, e.g.

yá - to look for, yuá - in order to look for, yé - to signal, yué - in order to signal.

48. The F1rst Secondary Verb Category.

Opposed to

btedum - she (it) will open (here), bierárum - she (it) will open him (here), biedárum - she (it) will open them (here),

we find the forms biedarum and bierarum, both meaning "she (it) will be opened (here), will (falI) open (here)".

And opposed to

kruodu - I will bury (here), kruorártt - I will bury him (here), króudáru - I will bury them (here),

we find

króuraru and króudaru - I will be buried (here).

What we have found appears to be a productive category which, on further investigation, shows the following possibilities of other forms:

króuraru or króudaru - I will be buried (here), króuraré or króudaré - you will be buried (here), króurarám or króudarám - he will be buried (here), króurarum or króudarum - she (it) wiJl be buried (here), króudemandám - you and I will be buried (here), króudiaru - we two will be buried (here), króudiaré - you two will be buried (here), króudiarám - they two (male) wilt be buried (here), króudiarum - they two (female) will be buried (here), króukrarám - they two (inanimate things) will be buried (here), króudiemandám - you and we will be buried (here), króudiemándu - we will be buried (here), króudiemánde - you (plur.) will be buried (here), króudiarám - they (animate) wilt be buried (here), króurarám - they (inanimate) will be buried (here). In other Tense categories of the First Position category we find: króuratu or króudatu - I am buried (here), etc., króurapu or króudapu - I was buried (here) (today, yesterday), etc., króuraku or króudaku - I was buried (here), etc. In the Second Position category: króurebaru or króudebaru - I wilt be buried above, króurebaré or króudebaré - you wilt be buried above, króurebarám or króudebarám - he will be buried above, króurebarum or króudebarum - she (it) will be buried above, króudemambarám - you and I wilt be buried above, króudiebaru - we two wilt be buried above, króudiebaré - you two will be buried above, króudiebarám - they two (male) wilt be buried above, króudiebarum - they two (female ) wilt be buried above, króukrebarám - they two (inanimate) will be buried above, króudiemambarám - you and we wilt be buried above, króudiemambáru - we will be buried above, króudiemambáre - you (plur.) wilt be buried above, króudiebarám - they (animate) wilt be buried above, króurebarám - they (inanimate) will be buried above, further:

króurebáu or króudebáu - I am (was) buried above, etc., króurebaku or króudebaku - I was buried above, etc.

In the Third Position category: króuref3Clru or króudet3aru - I will be buried be1ow, etc., króurekefJáu or króudekefjáu - I am (was) buried be1ow, etc., króuref3Ctku or króudet3aku - I was buried below, etc.

In the Fourth Position category: króuresaru or króudesaru - I will be buried there, etc., króuresáu or króudesáu - I am (was) buried there, etc., króuresaku or króudesaku - I was buried there, etc.

In the Fifth Position category: króurenaru or króudenaru - I will be buried far away, etc., króurenáu or króudenáu - I am (was) buried far away, etc., króurenaku or króudenaku - I was buried far away, etc.

Forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories appear not to exist in this category, nor do Iterative forms.

Examination of these forms disc\oses the following facts:

10 the root-morpheme has always the shape of the Infinitive and never shows a special Singular or Plu ral stem;

20 the forms are all characterized by an element -raor -dawhich is -reor -deresp., if not immediate1y preceding the Tense morpheme;

3° there are separate forms for inanimate actor in the Third Person Dual and Plural, and also for the Second Person Plural ;

4° in the Singular, except for the First + Second Person, raand da-forms are in free variation but for the Third Person Inanimate Dual and the Third Person Inanimate Plural only ra-forms occur, whereas in all the other Persons of Dual and Plural only da-forms are found;

5° the First + Second Person Singular, the First + Second Person Dual (Plural), the First Person Plural, and the Second Person Plural always have an element -mafjpreceding the Position morpheme, or the Tense morpheme resp. ;

6° the Third Person Inanimate Dual is marked off against the corresponding Singular and Plu ral forms by the element -kand the Actor morpheme -ám, but the Third Person Inanimate Plural is characterized by the Actor morpheme -ám only;

7° the other non-Singular forms are characterized by -ibut only following the d of the categorial morpheme and not in the rootmorpheme;

8° the Future morpheme is always -r-, except if the element -mafjimmediately precedes (then it is -d-);

9° the Actor morphemes have an accent in all forms, except those of the First Person Plural, the Second Person Plural, and of the First and Second Person Singular and Dual of the Present - Recent Past in the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position categories.

The semantical element, common to these forms, is "get into a state, caused by the action" . They of ten are best translated with a passive construction.

This category shows another feature by which it is sharply divided from the Unspecified Object, Masculine Object, Plural Object, Durative, Infinitive, and Final Infinitive categories. The fact is that in this category also members are found which have no corresponding forms in the other categories, in other words: it has members which are outside the norm al morphological system of the verb. The rootmorphemes of such members are found to belong to a wordclass that will be discussed under Syntax and will be called the class of the Adjectives. This category opens, as it were, the possibility of making verbal forms from adjectives, e.g.

héni buen - meager body,

tja buendatU - I become meager,

hru iauá - a grown-up man,

na iauádakum - she grew up.

In such cases the meaning is "get into the state (which is denoted by the lexical meaning)".

In § 46 we saw that Infinitives may have the function of adjectives. In other words, the Infinitive form is a means to make verbs into adjectives. As those members of the category in question which have corresponding forms in the verbal categories, enumerated above, always have the form of the Infinitive as the form of their root-morpheme, it may be said that the Infinitive is the connecting link bet ween that category and the other categories. The other members which correspond with adjectives only make it clear that this has something to do with the adjectival function of the Infinitive.

For this reasons we caU this category a Secondary verbal category and, as it is not the only one of this kind, we call it the First Secondary Verb Category.

There is one series of forms, belonging to this category, viz.

remédaru - I will change, become transformed (here),

etc., etc.,

the root-morpheme of which (remé-) is not found otherwise.

Moreover, all forms of this category occur with zero root-morpheme:

daru or raru - I will become (here),

etc., etc.

The lexical meaning of this forms is "become" .

49. The Second Secondary Verb Category.

Opposed to

bieraru or biedaru - I will be opened (here),

we find

bierery or biedery - I will be open(ed) (here).

Opposed to

batóratum - it opens (intr.), it becomes wide, we find

batóretym - it is open, is wide.

In the same way we find, corresponding with members of the First Secondary Verb category, forms different from them only in having Actors morphemes of the Apophonic series (and the form of other morphemes that goes with these Actor morphemes: -deinstead ol -da, -reinstead of -ra-, etc.). .

The common semantical element in these words is "to be in a state caused by the action" , or "to be in a state (denoted by the lexica meaning)".

All these forms constitute a productive category which counts amon~ its members words without corresponding forms in the categories 0 Unspecified Object, Masculine Object, Plu ral Object, Durative, In finitive, and Final Infinitive, but whose root-morphemes are fout1( among the adjectives. All what is said in § 48 about the connectiOl of the First Secondary Verb Category with the adjective and tht Infinitive also applies to this category. Therefore, we call it the Secom Secondary Verb Category.

In this category a series of forms is found with zero root-morphem and having the meaning "to be":

dery or rery - I will be (here),

etc., etc.

Needless to say that in the Second Secondary Verb Category DI Iterative forms and no forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position cate gories are found.

50. The Thlrd Secondary Verb Category.

Side by side with the Third Person Inanimate Plural forms of th Second Secondary Verb Category, described in the preceding §, othe forms are found having the same meaning but formally characterize by an element -rot)- in the forms of the First, Second, and Thir Position categories and -r011lin those of the Fourth and Fifth Positio categories, and the Actor morpheme -ym which has an accent in Fin Position forms, whereas in forms of the other Position categories ther is an accent on the Position morpheme, e.g.

bierondym - they (inanimate) will be open (here),

triirof3ketjyém - they (inanimate) are broken (are in pieces) below, f3éiromsékym - they (inanimate) were torn there.

Forms for other Actors or Numbers are not found in this category which we call the Third Secondary Verb Category. In other respects the scope of its productivity is the same as that of the Second Secondary Verb Category to which the Third is only a competitional series, that is to say, for the Third Person Inanimate Plural only.

DI. THE BLOCKADING CATEGORIES AND WORDS OF THE VERB·SYSTEM

1. Introduction.

In respect to their relations with productive categories, the improductive ones fall into two groups: those which have the same categorial meaning as a productive category, and those whose categorial meaning is not found with any productive category. Members of improductive categories of the first kind prevent a speaker from using the corresponding forms of the productive category with the same categorial meaning or limit the use of such forms (in case of competition). Therefore, we call them blo c k a din g categories. The improductive categories of the second group do not limit the extension of the productive ones at all. They constitute, as it were, excrescences on the edge of the morphological system. We call them a d dit ion a I categories.

In the Nimboran verb-system a number of improductive categories of both kinds are found. The blockading categories will be discussed first, arranged under the headings of the categories which they blockade. Af ter this the additional categories will pass under separate review.

2. Blockading categorles of the Unspeclfied Object.

A. The cate'gory of the Apophonic series

o f Act 0 r mor p hem e s.

The members of this category have the same form as those of the productive series, except for having Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series and that form of the other morphemes that goes with such Actor morphemes. In this category - like in all categories having Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series - there is no formal opposition between the Seventh and Eighth or between the Fourteenth and Sixteenth Position categories.

Members of this category are forms with the root-morphemes:

kifJ- - gaze (kifJ- also in Singular forms) ;

kyrj- - stoop down (kY13- also in Singular forms);

tety- - fall off (tetyalso in Singular forms); for this root-morpheme the Fifteenth Position category is blockaded hy another category (see § 14);

fJgYfJ- - fall (fJ9Y13- also in Singnlar forms);

hri- - descend;

kafJ- - emaciate;

yy- - ri se together;

ufJguoand fJguo- - appear together;

iapófJ - bathe; with this root-morpheme only forms for the Plu ral and the First + Second and Second Person Dual, with plural meaning only, are found; for all the other forms there is suppletion of forms with root-morphemes iá- or i-;

kri- - flee (krialso in Singular forms); with this root-morpheme only Singular and Dual forms are found; for the Plural there is substitution of forms with root-morpheme kry-;

reb- - drink; the Plural forms are blocked by the -decategory (see below under J.);

uu- - answer; with this root-morpheme only Momentary forms of this category are found, the Iterative being blocked by the -mefJcategory (see under B.);

ka- ; with this root-morpheme which never has an accent, only Third Person Neutral forms of the First Position category are found with the meaning Hit is (was, will be) ... " for statements of time, like seasons;

réi- - sleep; this root-morpheme has only Plural forms and First + Second and Second Person Dual forms, used only for plural actors; for the Singular and Dnal forms there is suppletion of forms of the -tacategory with zero root-morpheme (see below under K.);

1(- - say to; with this root-morpheme only Singular and Dual forms of the Momentary are found, the Plural being supplied by forms with root-morpheme i-; unever has an accent;

$- - say to; with this root-morpheme which never has an accent only Plural and I terative forms are found; suppletion for the Singular and Dual forms of the Momentary is given by forms with root-morpheme u- (see above).

Further, forms of this category are found for the Sixth, Seventh, and Thirteenth Position categories, having zero root-morpheme, in the First Person Plural prefixed iand in the Third Person Plural prefixed ke-. Their lexical meaning is "go". They correspond with analogically built forms with normal Actor morphemes like:

sándu - I will go from th ere to here (I will come from there),

kebántam - they go from below to here (they come from below).

In the Sixth and Seventh Position categories there is an accent on the Position morpheme, except in the First + Second Person forms.

If immediately preceded by the Position morpheme, the Future morpheme is -r-, e.g.

béry - I will go from here to above.

Side by side with the forms of the Seventh Position category free variants occur having initial h instead of SJ e.g.

séti or héti - you go from here to there.

B. Th e -meJJ- ca tego ry.

Members of this category are characterized by Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series and an element -mefjimmediately preceding the Position morpheme or, if this is zero, the Tense morpheme or I terative morpheme. This -me13- never has an accent so that the Actor morphemes of First Position forms all have an accent, e.g.

iámendy - I will ask (here),

tekumentim - he meets (here),

pébmefjkekefjyém - they two (non-masc.) call names below,

uuimenskékim - they answered there repeatedly.

The First + Second Person forms of this category have only one element -mefjand so are the same as the corresponding forms of the category of the Apophonic series of Actor morphemes, e.g.

tekumendim - you and I will meet (here).

The members of this category are forms with the following rootmorphemes:

teku- - meet;

iá1'j- - ask; in Plu ral forms this root-morpheme takes the form ia1}i-, e.g. ia1}imendy - we will ask (here);

peb- - eaU names; for this root-morpheme the First Position category is blocked by the -1}- category (see under C.);

uu- - answer; for this root-morpheme the Momentary is blocked by the category of the Apophonic series of Actor morphemes.

a The ~ categor~

Members of this category are characterized by Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series and an element -1'jpreceding the Position morpheme, or the Tense or Iterative morpheme respectively, e.g.

sándy - I will drive away (from here),

sáimbéry - we will drive away from above.

If a nasal precedes or follows immediately, the -1}- is fused with it and the result is a form identical with a member of the category of the Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series, e.g.

sámendîm - you and I will drive away (from here),

sánéy - I drive (drove) away from faro

sa- - drive away;

peb- - call names; only forms of the First Position category, the other Position categories being blocked by members of the -me1}- category (see under B.);

try- - pursue, but no Dual forms of the Momentary, as for these forms of the productive category of the Unspecified Object are used; e.g. trykebáru - we two will pursue above;

téi- - give to; in Singular forms this root-morpheme is Ue-.

With one root-morpheme some -1}- forms are found in which the

Actor morphemes are not of the Apophonic series: with the rootmorpheme hrii- (copulate) the Singttlar forms of the Future of the First Position category of the Momentary are:

hriéndu - I will copulate (here),

hriéndi - you will copulate (here),

hriéndam - he will copulate (here),

hriéndum - she will copulate (here).

All other forms with this root-morpheme belong to the productive categories.

D. Th e -peca tegory.

Members of this category are characterized by an element -pethat always immediately follows the root-morpheme, except in Dual forms where it immediately follows the Dual morpheme -ke-.

The members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme tÓUf3- - ri se to the surface, float to the surface, which is tóif3- in Plural forms, e.g.

tóumpebáf3ke - you came to the surface from below to here,

tóuf3kepebenanám - they two (masc.) rise to the surface from there

to above,

tóimpekátam - they come to the surface repeatedly (here).

E. The -racategory.

The members of this category have the same form as those of the productive Masculine Object category but in use and meaning they are equal to the Unspecified Object category which they blockade, e.g.

krendiyárátum - it is entangled,

patiáirebáku - we held a pig-feast above.

The members of his category are:

forms with root-morpheme krendiyá- - become entangled;

forms with root-morpheme patiá- - hold a pig-feast;

forms with root-morpheme téy- - trembIe ;

forms with root-morpheme sye- - swim;

forms with root-morpheme ro- - teIl, inform;

Singular forms with root-morpheme ki- - go, proceed;

Dual forms with root-morpheme kifj- - go, proceed;

forms with root-morpheme kakrá- - die; the Third Person Plural of the Future of the First Position category of the Momentary has the Tense morpheme -d-: kakráirádam - they will die (here);

forms with the root-morpheme iii- - divide, which is unchanged also in Singular forms, e.g. iiiráru - I will divide (here); the Dual forms are in competition with members of the productive Unspecified Object category; for the First Person Plural no forms of the -racategory are found with this root-morpheme so that for these the productive category is not blockaded;

Singular and Dual forms with root-morpheme pUfj- - come; these show the following deviations:

1 ° the fj of the root-morpheme is absent in the Singular forms, e.g. purebáktt - I came above, puremafjarám - you and I will come below;

2° the Future forms of the First Position category, naturally except that of the First + Second Person Singular, are in competition with forms having Future morpheme -d-, e.g. puráru or purádu - I will come (here);

3° the First + Second Person Dual and the Plural are not blocked; for these the normal forms of the productive Unspecified Object category are used;

4° -raforms of the Second Person Dual are used only for dual actors, whereas Second Person Dual forms of the productive category are used exclusively for plural actors, so that here a formal opposition exists between Second Person Dual and the Second Person Plural, e.g.

pUf)kráre - you two will come (here), puf)kedé - you (more than two) will come (here);

forms with root-morpheme kri- - build; the First Position forms are all in competition with forms of the productive category; in free variation with the Dual forms other forms are found having root-

MORPHOLOGY 129 Verh. dl. 44 9

morpheme krie-, e.g. krikráru or kriekráru - we two will build (here) ;

Iterative forms with root-morpheme ty- - hear, except for the First + Second Person Dual and the First Person Plu ra!. For the Momentary there is suppletion of totally different forms (see under K.);

forms with zero root-morpheme; the Plu ral forms have a prefixed i; the Future morpheme is in the Singular forms of the First Position category -d-; there are three series of these:

1. forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories with lexical meaning "bring", e.g.

rebedu - 1 will bring from here to above,

irebeká~ku - we brought repeatedly from below to here;

2. forms of the First to Fifth Po si ti on categories with the lexical meaning "dream", e.g.

iráram - they will dream (here),

kr~gáku - we two dreamed repeatedly below;

3. Iterative forms of the First to Fifth Po si ti on categories with the lexical meaning "laugh"; these constitute the suppletion for a verb with root-morpheme kiá- with which no Iterative forms are found; e.g.

rekátu - 1 laugh repeatedly (here),

ireskáku - we laughed there repeatedly.

Special mention must be made of the members of this category with the root-morpheme káowhich remains unchanged also in Singular forms. The corresponding Iterative forms have koas their rootmorpheme, e.g. kórekátu - 1 hide myself repeatedly (here).

Remarkable is that the lexical meaning of these forms is "hide oneself", whereas a series of members of the productive category is f·)und with identical root-morpheme but having the meaning "hide" (transitive I). It is obvious that there is some connection between these two series. This makes the -racategory in this case an a d dit ion a I category.14 Therefore, this case should have been discussed separately; this is not done here because of its limited scope.

F. Th e ·rePj' cat egory.

Members of this category are characterized by Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series and an element -re'3- that has no accent and immediately follows the root-morpheme, except in Dual forms where it immediately follows the Dual morpheme which then has the form -k-.

The only members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme iántC'3- - show, teach, which in Plural forms has the form iantéi'3- with shifted accent, e.g.

iántC'3rendy - I will show (here), iántC'3krembéy - we two teach above, iantéifjrenskéky - we taught th ere repeatedly.

G. The ·de· (·re·) category.

Members of this category are characterized by an element which in Singular and Plural forms is -deand immediately follows the root-morpheme but in Dual forms is -re and immediately follows the Dual morpheme which then is -k-. This element never has an accent so that an accent is found on the Actor morphemes of all Momentary forms of the First Position category, e.g.

apiándedu - I will fill up (here), kauáidietám - they sort out (here), kyépkresántum - they two (non-masc.) signal from there to here.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes

apiá'3- - fill up; sC'3guám- - chew; kyéb- - signal; kauáe- - sort out, select, which is kauáiin Plural forms; rekéi- - turn, roll, which is unchanged also in Singular forms, e.g. rekéidebáram - he will turn above; tekie- - move to and fro (trans.), which is unchanged also in Plu ral forms, e.g. tekiedieku - we moved to and fro (here); iyé- - signal, which is iyiin Plu ral forms; yé- - signal, which is yiin Plu ral forms; muo- - make, which is unchanged also in Plural forms, e.g. muodieke'3áu - we make below;

uásifj- - pass, which is unchanged in Singular, Dual and Plural forms;

fjgesîm- - roU up, which is unchanged also in Plural forms; the Dual forms are in competition with forms of the productive category and the Plural forms are in competition with members of the -dacategory (see under H.);

Singular and Plural forms with the root-morphemes

iró- - fill;

dóut}- - draw;

iakéy- - crumble, which is unchanged also in Plural forms, e.g. iakéydietu - we crumble (here);

for these three root-morphemes the Dual is not blockaded so that there forms of the productive category are used;

Singular forms with the root-morpheme kre- - extinguish; Dual and Plural are not blockaded for this root-morpheme so that for these members of the productive category are found.

H. The -dacategory.

Members of this category show similarity to those of the Plural Object category both in their form and in the absence of a formal opposition between Dual and Plural so that in this case, too, we can speak of a Non-Singular category. Another similarity is the absence of a special form of the root-morpheme for Singular forms.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes

dekuo- - enter;

rekii- - whee1 round, turn round;

kym- - burn, be burned, which is unchanged also in Non-Singular forms, e.g. kymdiátam - they burn (here);

forms of the Sixth, Eleventh, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Position categories wtih the root-morpheme bekéi- - rise, for which the First to Fifth Position categories are blockaded by other categories that will be discussed below;

Plural forms with the root-morphemes tenéit)- - peel;

tebá- - fry, bake;

dam- - eat, which is unchanged also in Plural forms;

For these three root-morphemes the Singular and Dual are not blockaded so that for these members of the Productive category are used. To the Plu ral forms of the -dacategory belongs also that of the Second Person so that there is an opposition between this and the Second Person Dual, e.g.

tebáketé - you two bake (here),

tebáidiáte - you (plur.) bake (here),

dámkekefjáe - you two eat below,

dámdiekefjáe - you (plur.) eat below.

To this group belong also forms with root-morpheme kib- - beat, for which, however, in the First Position category also the First Person Plural is not blockaded so that for this forms of the productive category are used, e.g.

kiptiu - we beat (here),

kibdiebáu - we beat above;

Plural forms, except those of the First Position category, with rootmorpheme bet yb- - throw away. For this root-morpheme the Singular, Dual, and in the First Position category also the Plural are not blockaded; the Second Person Non-Singular forms of the -dacategory are used for plu ral actors only and are all found in competition with members of the productive category;

Non-Singular forms with the root-morpheme kri- - close, shut, the First, Second, and Third Person especially used for plural actors; Singular and Dual are not blockaded; for the First and Third Person Plural of the First Position category -daforms are found in competition with members of the productive category ;

Non-Singular forms with root-morpheme re- - put on (clothes), blockading only the Plural category ; the other categories are blocked by the -tacategory (see under K.).

J. Th e -decat ego r y.

Members of this category are characterized in the same way as those of the -dacategory but have, in addition, Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series so that the marking element always has the vowel e.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morpheme bUfj- - wait;

K. The -taca tegory.

forms with the root-morpheme tefjgréifj- - go in front, lead the way;

First, Second, and Third Person Non-Singular forms with rootmorpheme reb- - drink, especially used for pll1ral actors; all other forms are blockaded by the category of the Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series (see l1nder A.);

forms with the root-morpheme teky- - place against something. In this series separate forms for the Dual are found in which the characterizing element has the form -reand immediately follows the Dual morpheme which is k, e.g.

tekydéry - I will place (here), tekykréry - we two will place (here), tekyidiéry - we will place (here).

Members of this category are characterized in the same way as those of the -dacategory (see under H.), except for the consonant of the morpheme which is t.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes

do- - give (many objects) ; kOfj- - have a nightmare; déifj- - stretch oneself; pempriáfj- - sprawl; ra- - roast (many objects) ; kryá- - defecate; tekim- - move, which is unchanged also in Non-Singular forms; ngryéb- - cast the skin; bUfj- - cast the skin; pra- - cross; the Singular forms of the Future of the First Position category of the Momentary with this root-morpheme have d as their tense morpheme, e.g. prátádu - I will cross (here);

forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories with root-morpheme kCfj- - follow; for this root-morpheme the First to Fifth Position categories are blockaded by the -tefjcategory (see under 0.);

Singular forms and N on-Singular forms - the latter only used for dual actors - with the root-morpheme re- - put on, for which the Plural is blocked by the -dacategory (see under H.);

forms of the First to Fifth Position categories with zero root-morpheme and in the Non-Singular forms with prefixed i, having the lexical meaning "make cat's-cradles";

Momentary forms with zero root-morpheme and in the Non-Singular forms prefixed i with the meaning "hear" ; the Iterative is supplied by members of the -raand the -recategories with root-morpheme ty- (see under E. and Y.);

forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories with zero rootmorpheme, having the lexical meaning "stretch out, extend (over a distance)" ;

Singular forms and Non-Singular forms, used only for dual actors, with zero root-morpheme and the Non-Singular forms with prefixed i with the lexical meaning "sleep"; the First Position category forms all have an accent on the Actor morpheme and the Future forms of the First Position category have d as their Tense morpheme, e.g. tedu - I will sleep (here). For the Plural there is suppletion of forms of the category of Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series with root-morpheme réi- (see under A.);

Singular forms of the Iterative with root-morpheme prif3- - fly; all other forms are blockaded by the -tecategory for this rootmorpheme (see under L.).

L. The -tecategory.

Members of this category have the same form as those of the -tacategory but have Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. Consequently, the vowel of the characterizing element is always e.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes

teyi- - jump;

uéf3- - swing (on a swing), which in Non-Singular forms is uif3-;

prif3- - be frightened, which is prif3- also in Non-Singular forms;

prif3- - fly, which is unchanged also in Non-Singular forms; Future forms of the First Position category all have an accent on the

Actor morpheme, e.g. printery - I will fly (here); the Singular of the Iterative is blocked for prifjby the -tacategory (see under K.);

nifj- - stand, stand up, which is unchanged also in Non-Singular forms; for the Third Person Plural of the Future of the First Position category a form with d as its Tense morpheme is found as free variant, so nîntiédim or nintiérim - they will stand (here) ;

bekîe- - run, which is bekiealso in Non-Singular forms; the Future forms of the First Position category are in competition with forms having Tense morpheme d and an accent on the Actor morpheme, e.g. bekietedy or bekîetéry - I will run (here);

Non-Singular forms with root-morpheme kryi- - flee; in the First Position forms there is an accent on the Actor morphemes and the Future morpheme is d; these forms are only used for plural actors and form the suppletion to forms with root-morpheme kri- (see under A.);

Non-Singular forms with zero root-morphemes and the lexical meaning "kiss" ; in First Position forms there is always an accent on the Actor morpheme and the Fllture morpheme is -d-; the Singular is blockaded by the -temcategory (see under W.);

Third Person Neutral Singular forms of the Momentary forms with zero root-morpheme and the lexical meaning "be (present)"; in the First Position category there is always an accent on the Actor morpheme and the Future Morpheme is -d-; these forms are in competition with the corresponding forms of the Second Secondary Verb Category (see Ch. 11, § 49).

M. The -d6'J- ca tego ry.

Members of this category have the formal characteristics of both the -decategory and the -fjcategory (see under J. and C.), e.g.

bekéidenséry - I will rise there,

dóbdiénty - we smeU (here).

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes isuand isiu-, both having the lexical meaning "shake" and both unchanged also in Non-Singular forms;

forms of the First to Fifth Position categories with the root-morpheme bekéi- - ri se, for which the other Position categories are blockaded by the -dacategory (see under H.);

First Position forms with root-morpheme dob- - smeU; the other Position categories are blockaded by the -demetJ- category (see under R.).

N. Th e -dfltJ- (-rfltJ-) cat ego r y.

Members of this category have the characteristics of both the -de- (-re-) category (see under G.) and the -13- category (see under C.) combined.

The members of this category are:

Momentary forms with the root-morphemes nCtJgyand retJgy-, both having the lexical meaning "show, indicate"; for these two rootmorphemes the I terative is blockaded by the -dem-( -rem-) category (see under U.);

First Position forms with root-morphemes iaby- - gather (together); for this root-morpheme the other Position categories are blockaded by the -dem-(-rem-) category (see under U.).

E.g.

netJgyedendy - I will show (here), rCtJgykrCtJkCtJéi - you (non-sing.) show below.

O. The -tfltJ- cate'gory.

In the form of the members of this category the characteristics of the -tecategory (see under L.) and the -13- category (see under C.) are combi ned.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morpheme brásitJ- - find, which is unchanged also in N on-Singular forms;

forms of the First to Fifth Positioll categories with root-morpheme kCtJ- - follow; for this root-morpheme the other Position categories are blockaded by the -tacategory (see under K.).

P. The -nEltJ- category.

The formal characteristics of this category are the same as those of the -te?J- category (see under 0.) except for the first consonant of its morpheme which is n instead of t.

Members of this category are Momentary forms of the First Position category with the root-morpheme p013- - see, which is p013- also in Non-Singular forms, e.g.

pónéndy - I will see (here),

pónié13ky - we (two) saw (here).

For this root-morpheme the other Position categories of the Momentary are blockaded by the -nemcategory (see under X.) and the Iterative by the -nemet:jcategory (see under S.).

Q. Th e -demEltJ- (-remEltJ·) cat ego r y.

In the form of the members of this category the characteristics of the -de- (-re-) category (see under G.) and those of the -me?J- category (see under E.) are combined.

The only members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme ski13- - choke, which is skit:jalso in Plural forms, e.g.

skindemendy - I will choke (here),

ski13krementim - they two (masc.) choke (here),

skindieme?Jékim - they choked below.

R. Th e -demEltJ- cat ego r y.

In this category the formal characteristics of the -decategory (see under J.) and of the -me?J- category (see under E.) are combined.

The members of this category are:

forms of the Second to Fifth Position categories with the rootmorpheme dob- - smeU, for which the First Position category is blockaded by the -de?J- category (see under M.);

Iterative forms with the root-morpheme skry- - shake, for which the Momentary category is blockaded by the -demcategory (see under V.).

E.g.

dóbdiemembéy - we (two) smeU above,

skrydeme?Jkétim - he shakes repeatedly (here).

8. Th e ·nem~· cat ego r y.

Members of this category show the same formal characteristics as those of the -demC1J- category (see under R.) except for the morpheme having n instead of d.

The members of this category are Iterative forms with the rootmorpheme po~- - see, which is unchanged also in Non-Singular forms, e.g.

pónemC1Jkéty - I see repeatedly (here),

póniemenskéky - we (we two) saw repeatedly there.

For this root-morpheme the Momentary is blocked by the -ne~ category and the -nemcategory (see under P. and X.).

T. Th e ·re~ cat ego r y.

Members of this category are characterized by Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series and by an element -remimmediately foUowing the root-morpheme, except in Dual forms wh ere it immediately foUows the Dua! morpheme which then has the form -k-. If immediately foUowed by the morpheme of the Third, Fifth, or Ninth Position category, the form of the characterizing element is -reme-. In forms of the First Position category, except those of the First + Second Person, -remhas an accent.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes

yá- - seek,

tra~- - caU, which is tra~- also in P!ural forms,

ki~- - order; this root-morpheme is unchanged in P!ura! forms; in the Singular stem the ~ may be dropped, so that it is kieor kie~-;

Plu ral forms with root-morpheme re- - go, proceed; the Singular forms are supplied by root-morpheme kiand the Dual by forms with root-morpheme ki~-J aU of the -racategory (see under E.).

Some examp!es:

kierémty or kiC1Jrémty - I order (here),

yákreme~éri - you (two) will seek below,

trá~remenékim - he (they) caUed far away.

U. The ·dem- (·rem-) category.

Members of this category have the same form as those of the -de- (-re-) category with an m added to the characterizing element which in the Third, Fifth, and Ninth Position categories shows the same variation as -remof the preceding category (see under T.).

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes

uauy- - take along, which is unchanged also in Singular forms;

rekii- - cheat, which is rekiin Singular forms;

iaby- - gather (together), but not the forms of the First Position category, as this blockaded by the -defJ- (rctJ-) category (see under N.);

Iterative forms with the root-morphemes rengyand nengy-, both with the lexical meaning "show" ; for these root-morphemes the Momentary is blockaded by the -dCtJ- (-rctJ-) category (see under N.).

V. Th e ·dem· ca te g 0 ry.

Members of this category have the same form as those of the -dccategory (see under J.), except for the characterizing element being -demand showing a variation analogous to that of -remin the Third, Fifth, and Ninth Position categories (see under T.).

The members of this category are:

forms with the root morpheme tJgéifJ- - forget, and

Iterative forms with the root-morpheme skry- - shake, for which the Momentary is blockaded by the -demCtJ- category (see under R.).

Examples:

tJgéindemCtJéky - I forgot below,

skryidiémdi - you (two) will shake (here).

W. The -temcategory.

The members of this category show the same forms as those of the -demcategory, except for the characterizing element having t instead of d.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morpheme muá- - cock one's eye;

forms with the root-morpheme fjgry- - know carnally;

Singular forms with zero root-morpheme and having the lexical meaning "kiss", e.g. temtym - she kisses (here). The Non-Singular is blockaded by the -tecategory (see under L.).

X. The -nemcategory.

Members of this category have the same forms as those of the -demcategory (see under V.) except for the characterizing element having n instead of d.

The members of this category are only Momentary forms (but not those of the First Position category) with the root-morpheme pOfj- - see, which is unchanged also in Non-Singular forms, e.g.

pónemséy - I see there,

póniemkefjém - they see below.

For this root-morpheme the First Position category of the Momentary is blockaded by the -nefjcategory (see under P.) and the Iterative by the -nemCfjcategory (see under S.).

Y. The -recategory.

Members of this category have the same characteristics as those of the -racategory but, in addition, have Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. The only members of this category are Iterative forms with root-morpheme ty- - hear, but only for the First + Second Person Dual and the First Person Plural. The other Persons of the Iterative are blockaded by the -Yacategory (see under E.), while for the Momentary there is suppletion of forms with zero root-morpheme of the -tacategory (see under K.).

3. Blockading categories of the MascuUne Object.

A. The -m!U3- category.

Members of this category are characterized by an element -l1lafjimmediately preceding the Position morpheme, except in First Position forms, as in the Momentary forms of the First Position category it precedes the Tense morpheme (and has an accent!) and in the Iterative forms of the First Po si ti on category immediately precedes the Iterative morpheme. This element -111Q.'3- and the -ma'3- of the First + Second Person Singular result in only one -nta'3-. Examples of members of this category are: sámansártt - I will drive him from there, dY'3kema'3kátum - they two (non-masc.) remember him repeatedly, tebáimá'3kam - they gave him a wife.

The members of this category are forms with the root-morphemes:

sa- - drive away ; peb- - caIl names; try- - pursue; práo - observe, which is proá- in Singular forms; ki'3- - crush, which is kie'3- in Singular forms; ki'3- - tie up, which is kie'3- in Singular forms; tebá- - give a wife, arrange the marriage for; skab- - pinch; dm- - remember; téi- - give (one object) t~, which is tiein Singular forms.

B. Th e -mElJ3- cat ego r y.

Members of this category show the same forms as those of the -ma'3- category except for their Actor morphemes which are of the Apophonic series. Consequently, the vowel of the characterizing element is e.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes uu- - answer; iá'3- - ask; teku- - meet;

Momentary forms with the root-morpheme uthat never has an accent and for which Plural forms have i-, also without accent, having the lexical meaning "teIl, say to".

Examples:

tekuméndy - I wiIl meet him (here), iá'3kemembéi - you two ask him above, ftuimC'3ékim - they answered him below.

o. The -remCU3- category.

The members of this category have the same forms as those of the -ma13- category (see under A.) but, in addition, have -repreceding the element -nta13-. Before this -rema13- the Dual morpheme is -k-.

The members of this category are forms with the root-morphemes:

ki13- - order,

ro- - teIl,

tra13- - caIl,

yá- - seek,

iánte13- - show, in which the 13 is usually dropped in Singular and Plu ral forms,

pu13- - marry (said of woman), the 13 of which is usually dropped in Singular and Plu ral forms,

and forms with zero root-morphemes having the lexical meaning "dream (of)". The Plu ral forms of this last series have an i prefixed.

Some examples :

trá13kremansákam - they two (masc.) called him there,

yáiremambáru - we will look for him above, kieremá13ku - lordered him (here), puremándam - she will marry him (here), remántum - she dreams of him (here), iremansáku - we dreamed of him there.

D. The -dematJ (-rematJ-) category.

Members of this category show the same forms as those of the -rema13- category; the only difference is found in the Singular and Plu ral forms where the characterizing element has d instead of r.

ne13gy- - show,

YefJgy- - show,

ski13- - choke,

uauy- - take along,

rekii- - cheat,

13géi13- - forget.

Some examples:

rekidemántam - he cheats him (here),

uauykremansenáru - we two will take him along from below to there, skindiemanálwm - they strangled him far away.

E. Th e .tema". cat ego r y.

Members of this category are formally characterized by an element -temuf3- immediately following the root-morpheme. In this category there is no opposition between Dual an Plu ral but there is one N onSingular category, characterized by an i immediately af ter the t of -temaf3- (and, if possible, an i af ter the last vowel of the root-morpheme). In the Singular forms no special Singular stem of the root-morpheme is found.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morphemes

kuá- - embrace,

kef3- - follow,

brásif3- - find,

do- - give (many objects) to;

forms with zero root-morpheme and with the lexical meaning "hear" ; the Plural forms have prefixed i;

Iterative forms with the root-morphemes

króu- - bury,

krakóu- - cover,

kakróu- - cover,

prib- - throw,

kib- - beat;

for these root-morphemes the Momentary is not blockaded so that for this category the forms of the Productive Masculine Object category are used.

Examples:

kuátemáf3k1l11l - she embraced him (here),

kéintiemef3kenéry - we will follow him from there (above, below) to far away,

kiptiemaf3gátam or kiitiemafjgátam - they beat him repeatedly below, temándu - I will hear him (here),

itiemambám - we hear him above,

temanskákum - she heard him there repeatedly.

The members of this category with the root-morpheme téi-, in Singular forms tie-, deserve especial mention. They have the lexical meaning "give two objects to". There is some correspondence between these forms and those with identical root-morpheme belonging to the -ma~- category (see under A.) and having the lexical meaning "give one object to". In fact these -tema~- forms constitute an Additional category and should be discussed separately. Because no parallel cases are found, they are treated here together with the other -tema~- forms.

F. Th e -nematjca t ego ry.

The forms of the members of this category are the same as those of the -tema13- category, except for the characterizing element having n instead of t.

The only members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme po~- - see, e.g.

pónemántu - I see him (here),

póniemansáke - you (non-sing.) saw him there.

G. The -demetjcategory.

Formally, the members of this category resembie those of the -tema~ category (see under E.) but they have Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series and the characterizing element has d instead of t.

The only members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme bu~- - wait for; e.g.

bundeméndy - I will wait for him (here),

buindiemensékim - they waited for him t1Iere.

H. Th e ·dem- (-rem.) cat e g o·r y.

Members of this category show the same forms as those of the -dema13- (-rema13-) category (see under D.) except for their characterizing element being -dem-, in Dual forms -rem-.

The members of this category are farms with the root-morphemes:

yé- - signal,

iyé- - signal,

kyéb- - signa!.

Some examples :

yédembedu - I will signal to him from here to above, iyékremsetu - we two signal to him from here to there, kyéidiembáfjkam - they signalled to him from be10w to here.

4. Blockadlng categories of the PluraI Object.

A. Th e cat ego r y 0 f t hes h i ft e d ace ent.

Members of this category have the same form as those of the productive Plural Object category except for having always an accent on the Actor morpheme. The Plural Object morpheme is always -de-. In the First Position category the Future morpheme is -d-.

The only members of this category are Momentary forms of the First Position category with the root-morpheme iabycollect, gather ; e.g.

iabydedu - I will gather them (here),

iabyidiedé - you (non-sing.) will gather them (here).

For this root-morpheme the other Position categories and the Iterative of the First Position category are not blockaded so that fOl' these members of the productive category are used.

B. Th e ,tacat ego r y.

The members of this category are the same in form as those of the productive category except for the consonant of the morpheme which is t instead of d,

To this category belong

forms with the root-morpheme brásifj- - find;

forms with the root-morpheme prib- - throw, all in competition with members of the productive Plural Object category;

forms with the root-morpheme kefj- - follow, except those of the Sixth to Ninth Position categories, because these are blockaded by the -teimcategory (see under D.);

Non-Singular forms with root-morpheme dóu- - follow, for which the Singular is not blockaded;

Verh. dl. 44 10

Non-Singular forms with the root-morpheme kOfj- - set, put, all in competition with members of the productive Plu ral Object category; for this root-morpheme the Singular is not blockaded.

Some examples:

brásintáku - I found them (here),

kéintiebánte - you (non-sing.) follow them from below to here, kóindiebáru or kóintiebám - we will put them above.

a. The category of the Actor morphemes o f t h e Apo P h 0 n i cse r i e s.

Members of this category have the same forms as those of the productive Plural Object category but their Actor morphemes are of the Apophonic series. Consequently, the characterizing element always has the vowel e.

The members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme reb- - drink, e.g.

rébdéry - I will drink them (here),

rébdiesékim - they drank them there.

D. The -teimcategory.

The forms of this category run closely parallel to those of the productive Plu ral Object c:;ategory but their characterizing element is not -dabut -teimand they all have Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series.

The only members of this category are forms of the Sixth to Ninth Position categories with the root-morpheme kefj- - follow, for which the other Position categories are blockaded by the -tacategory (see under B.); e.g.

kénteimbedy - I will follow them from here to above,

kéintieimseti - you (non-sing.) follow them from here to below (or to there).

E. Th e -deJ3- cat ego r y.

Members of this category show the same forms as those of the -teimcategory, except for the element characterizing them which is -defj-. The i which characterizes the Non-Singular forms has its place immeditely af ter the d of this -det3- but not in forms of the Fourth and Fifth Position categories, because there it immediately follows the first consonant of the Position morpheme, whereas in Future and Present forms of the First Position category this i immediately follows the Tense morpheme.

Members of this category are only forms with the root-morpheme bUfJ- - wait for, e.g.

bundéndy - I will wait for them (here),

buindéntiy - we wait for them (here),

buindiéfJky - we waited for them (here),

buindensiérim - they will wait for them there.

F. Th e -diemcat ego r y.

Members of this category have the same forms as those of the -teimcategory (see under D.) but their characterizing element is -diemwhich has the form -diemeif it is immediately followed by the morpheme of the Third, Fifth, or Ninth Position category.

The members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme uauy- - take along, and Plural forms with the root-morpheme dYfJ- - remember, for which the Dual and Singular categories are blockaded by the -rifJ- category (see under K.). In the Momentary forms of the First Position category with root-morpheme dYfJ- the e of the element -diemhas an accent, e.g.

dyindiémdy - we will remember them (here).

But in the Momentary forms of the First Position category with root-morpheme uauytheir is an accent on the Actor morpheme, e.g.

uauyidiemky - we took them along from here.

The Non-Singular forms of Future and Present of the First Position category of the Momentary with the root-morpheme uauyhave an i immediately following the Tense morpheme, e.g.

uauyidiemdiy - we will take them along from here,

uauyidiemtiim - they take them along from here.

G. Th e -niet}- cat e 'g 0 r y.

The members of this category show the same forms as those of the preceding one, except for their characterizing element being -nie1jinstead of -diem-.

The members of this category are Momentary forms of the First Position category with the root-morpheme po'Yj- - see. They have an accent on the e of -nie1jand the Non-Singular forms have i immediately following the Tense morpheme; e.g.

póniéf3ky - I saw them (here),

póniéndiy - we will see them (here).

For this root-morpheme the other Position categories are blockaded by the -niemcategory (see ttnder H.).

H. Tne -nie'l7lr category.

Members of this category have precisely the same forms as those of the -diemcategory (see ttnder F.), except for the first consonant of the characterizing element being n instead of d. There happens to be no difference between Singular and Non-Singular forms of this category.

Members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme po'Yj- - see, not induding those of the Momentary of the First Position category which are blockaded by the -nie'Yjcategory (see under G.).

Examples:

pónieme1jéry - I (we) will see them below,

póniemsékim - he (they) saw them there.

J. Th e -re,,- cat ego r y.

Members of this category are formally identical with those of the -re'Yjcategory of the Unspecified Object (see § 2 under F.). Here we find separate categories of Dttal and Plttral. This is in striking contrast with the situation found in the Plural Object categories discussed sofar in this § and in the productive Plural Object category. In the Momentary forms of the First Position category the element -re1jhas an accent and the Plural forms of Future and Present may have an i immediately preceding the Actor morpheme.

The members of this category are:

Momentary forms with the root-morphemes

ki'Yj- - order, trafj- - eaU,

yá- - seek;

for these root-morphemes the Iterative IS bloekaded by the -rifjeategory (see under K.);

forms with the root-morpheme iántefj- - show, which are aU in competition with members of the -rifjcategory (see under K.);

forms with zero root-morpheme, having the lexical meaning "dream (of)"; the Plural forms have a prefixed i.

Examples:

kieréndy - I will order them (here),

tráfjkrembéki - you (plur., du.) caUed them above,

iréntiy - we dream of them (here).

K. Th e -ri'J- cat ego r y.

In form, the members of this category are the same as those of the -refjcategory (see under J.) except for the vowel of the characterizing element being i instead of e.

The members of this eategory are:

forms with the root-morpheme sa- - drive away;

forms with the root-morpheme tapó- - help;

Singular and Dual forms with the root-morpheme dYfj- - remember; for this root-morpheme the Plural is blockaded by the -diemcategory (see under F.);

Iterative forms with the root-morphemes

kifj- - order,

trafj- - eaU,

yá- - seek;

for these three root-morphemes the Momentary IS blockaded by the -re1jcategory (see under J.);

Iterative forms with the root-morpheme ro- - teU; for this rootmorpheme the Momentary is blockaded by the -reifjcategory (see under 0.) and the -rimcategory (see under P.);

forms with the root-morpheme iánte13- - show, all in competition with members of the -re13- category (see under J.) ;

Dual forms with the root-morphemes iá13- - ask, and teku- - meet; for these root-morphemes the Singular and Plural are blockaded by the -13- category (see under N.);

forms with the root-morphemes try- - pursue, and téi- - give (tiein Singular forms); these two series of forms show two peculiar features:

1. Momentary forms of Present and FlItlIre in the First Position category have an additional i immediately preceding the Actor morpheme;

2. all Plural forms have a k immediately preceding the element -ri13- ;

forms with the root-morpheme peb- - call names; these forms show the same peculiarities as mentioned for the forms with tryand téibut, in addition, have in the Iterative an extra element -me13- immediately following -ri13-.

Examples:

sáirindiy - we will drive them away (from here),

tapókrimbéky - we two helped them above,

péikrimenskétim - they abuse them repeatedly there.

L. The -dit}- category.

Members of this category have the same forms as those of the -ri13- category (see under K.) except in the Singular and Plural, where the characterizing element has d instead of r. The Momentary forms of the First Position category have an accent on the Actor morpheme and those of Future and Present have an additional i immediately preceding the Actor morpheme.

The only members of this category are forms with the root-morpheme rekii- - cheat, e.g.

rekidindii - you (sing.) will cheat them (here),

rekiikrinséry - we two will cheat them there,

rekUdii13ky - we cheated them (here).

M. The ·dim· ca tegory.

The members of this category show the same forms as those of the -di'3- category (see under L.) except for the characterizing element having m instead of '3. If immediately preceding the morpheme of the Third, Fifth, or Ninth Position category, the form of the characterizing element is -dimein Singular and Plural forms or -rimein Dual forms.

The members of this category are forms with the root-morphemes iyé-, yé-, and kyéb-, all having the lexical meaning "signaI", e.g.

yédimbedi - you will signal them from here to above,

iyékrimeneky - we two signalled them from here to far away,

kyéidiimskénty - we signal them repeatedly from there to here.

N. The ·13- category.

Members of this category show the following formal characteristics:

1. all Actor morphemes are of the Apophonic series;

2. First + Second Person Singular forms have an element -keimmediately following the root-morpheme;

3. except for the First + Second Person forms, there is no formal difference for the number of the Actor;

4. all forms are characterized by an element -'3- which in Momentary forms of the First Position category immediately precedes the Tense morpheme, in Iterative forms of the First Position category immediately precedes the Iterative morpheme, and in all other Position categories immediately precedes the Position morpheme;

5. all forms, except those of the First + Second Person Singular, have an i immediately following the last vowel of the root-morpheme, except with those root-morphemes which have a Plu ral stem without i;

6. all forms have an i immediately preceding the first vowel following either the root-morpheme or, in First + Second Person Singular forms, -ke-, if that vowel is preceded by d, t, n, or s.

The members of this category are:

forms with the root-morpheme ftU- - answer;

forms with zero root-morpheme and with the lexical meaning "say to" ;

Singular and Plu ral forms with the root-morphemes iá'3- - ask, and teku- - meet; for these two root-morphemes the Dual is blockaded by the -ri'3- category (see under K.).

Some examples:

ial3isiéki - you asked them there, ..

U1Á,indiy - I (we) will answer them (here),

tekukentiim - you and I meet them (here),

indiy - I (we) will say to them (here),

kementim - you and I say to them (here).

o. Th e -reil)- catego ry.

Formally, the members of this category are identical with those of the -rel3- category (see under J.) except for the characterizing element being -reil3- instead of -rCfj-.

The only members of this category are Momentary forms of the First Position category with the root-morpheme ro- - tell, e.g.

róréindiy - I will tell them (here),

rókréintiy - we two tell them (here),

róiréil3kim - they told them (here).

For this root-morpheme the Iterative is blockaded by the -rit'jcategory (see under K.) and the other Position categories of the Momentary by the -rimcategory (see under P.).

P. Th e -rimcat ego r y.

The forms of the members of this category are the same as those of the -rit'jcategory (see under K.) except for the characterizing element having m instead of 13 and being -rime-, if immediately followed by the Position morpheme of the Third and Fifth Position categories.1 5

The members of this category are Momentary forms, but not those of the First Position category, with the root-morpheme ro- - teIl. For this root-morpheme the First Position category of the Momentary is blockaded by the -reil3- category (see under 0.) and the Iterative by the -ril3- category (see under K.).

Q. The -tiemca tegory.

Members of this category are characterized by an element -tiem-;

for the rest their forms are the same as those of the -teimcategory (see under D.). No i is added to the Non-Singular forms and, as the only members of this category are Momentary forms with the accentless root-morpheme i- - hear, which has the same form both in Singular and Non-Singular forms, there is no formal difference for the number of the Actor; e.g.

itiemséry - we (1) will hear them there,

itiemCf3éki - you heard them below.

5. Blockading categorles of the Slngular.

The blockading categories of the Singular consist of forms of Singular stems, deviating from the pattern described in Chapter 1I, § 35. They are discussed here, only in 50 far as their members be long to the productive categories of Unspecified Object, etc.; all the other cases are mentioned in §§ 2 to 4 of this chapter.

A. Th e cat e Ig 0 r y 0 f th e s h i f t e d ace ent.

The members of this category are different from those of the productive category in the place of the accent of the Singular stem, as this accent is on the vowel following that of the root-morpheme. This is the case with the following Singular sterns:

kiéfJ-, root-morpheme kitJ- - pack, wrap up;

kiétJ-, root-morpheme kitJ- - regret;

kiétJ-, root-morpheme kifJ- - bind, tie up;

kiétJ-, root-morpheme kitJ- - crush;

hrié-, root-morpheme hrii- - cohabitate;

temyétJ-, root-morpheme temytJ- - stab.

Examples:

kiéntu - I pack (here), (etc.),

temyétJke - you (sing.) stabbed (here).

B. Th e -u'3-, -uet}- cat ego r y.

The members of this category have a Singular stem en ding 111 -uetJ-, corresponding with a root-morpheme ending in -utJ-. These members are forms with the Singular stem buetJ-, corresponding with the rootmorpheme bUfj- - pick off, and forms with the Singular stem hrue'3-, corresponding with the root-morpheme hrtt'3- - break.

Examples:

bue'3áru - I will pick off below,

hruente - you (sing.) break (here).

a. The -00-, -acategory.

The members of this category have a Singular stem ending in -a-, corresponding with a root-morpheme en ding in -áo-. The members of this category are forms with the Singular stem i'3gá-, corresponding with the root-morpheme ifjgáo- - wash, and forms with the Singular stem teká-, corresponding with the root-morpheme tekáo- - draw (water from a weU, etc.).

Examples:

ifjgádu - I will wash (here),

tekáke - you drew (water) (here).

D. Th e -áo-, -oá- c a te g ory.

The members of this category have a Singular stem ending in -oá-, whereas the corresponding root-morpheme ends in -áo-. These members are forms with the Singular stem kroá- (root-morpheme kráo- - demolish) and forms with the SinguJar stem proá- (root-morpheme práo- - observe), e.g.

kroábáram - he will demolish above,

proásóm - she observes there.

E. Th e -0-, ·?lecart ego r y.

The members of this category have a Singular stem en ding in -ue-, whereas the corresponding root-morpheme ends in -ó-. These members are forms with the SinguJar stem rue-, corresponding with rootmorpheme ro- - wash, e.g.

ruedu - I will wash (here),

ruekCf3ám - he washes below.

F. Th e -óu-, -oá- cat ego r y.

Members of this category have a Singular stem ending in -oá-, corresponding with a root-morpheme ending in -óu-. These members are forms with the Singular stem noá- (root-morpheme nóu- - break up) and forms with the Singular stem droá- (root-morpheme dróu- - bath). The latter are in competition with forms of the -óu-, -ó- category (see under G.).

Examples:

noáku - I broke up (here),

droáresáru - I wiII bath him there.

G. The -6u-, -6- category.

Members of this category have a Singular stem ending in -ó-, whereas the corresponding root-morpheme ends in -óu-. These members are forms with the Singular stem uó- (root-morpheme uóu- - spit out) and forms with the Singular stem dro- (root-morpheme dróu- - bath). The latter forms are in competition with members of the -óu-, -oá- category (see under P.).

Examples:

uókam - he spit out (here),

droáresóm - or dróresóm - she bathes him there.

H. The Identity category.

The members of this category have a singttlar stem, ending in -yéiJ'jwhich is identical with the root-morpheme. These members are forms with the Singular sterns (root-morphemes) syéit3- - cut loose, and J'jgyéiJ'j- - shake, e.g.

syéimbáru - I wiII cut loose above,

J'jgyéiJ'jkam - he shook (here).

6. The DuaI caregory of the prefixed k.

The members of the only blockading category of the Dual are characterized by having a k prefixed to the root-morpheme instead of -kefoIIowing it. This category we caII the category of the prefixed k.

The members of this category are:

Unspecified Object forms of the First Position category with the rootmorpheme iá- - bathe; the First + Second Person is not included and the Second Person forms are used for dual Actors only: e.g. iádu - I will bathe (here), but kiádu - we two will bathe (here) ;

Unspecified Object forms of the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Position category, except for the First + Second Person, with the root-morpheme i- - bathe, which has no accent, e.g. 'libáke - you two bathed above (cf. ibáke - you (sing.) bathed above); the Second Person forms are used only for dual Actors;

Unspecified Object forms with the root-morpheme which elsewhere is uwithout an accent but in Dual forms is represented by 0- and has an accent, but only in the Momentary forms of the First Position category; the lexical meaning is "say"; all these forms are in competition with members of the prodllctive category, e.g.

kódy or ukedy - we two will say (here),

koberim or ukebcrim - they two (masc.) will say above.

7. Blockadlng categories of the Plural.

The blockading categories of the Plural are all characterized by the form of the Plural stem of the root-morpheme, deviating from the pattern described in Chapter 1I, § 37. They are discllssed here only in so far as their members belong to the prodllctive categories of Unspecified Object, etc.; the others are mentioned in the §§ 2 to 4 of this chapter.

A. The -6u-, ·uicat e go ry.

The members of this category have a Plural stem ending in -ûi-, corresponding with a root-morpheme ending in -óu-. These members are forms with the Plural stems:

krûi- (root-morpheme króu-) - sing;

krui- (root-morpheme króu-) - bllry;

kakrui- (root-morpheme kakróu-) - cover;

krakûi- (root-morpheme krakóu-) - cover.

Examples:

kruitiu - we bllry (or: sing) (here),

kakruibákam or krakûibálwm - they covered above.

B. Th e ·áo·, ·ái· ca tego ry.

Members of this category have a Plural stem ending in -ái-, whereas the corresponding root-morpheme ends in -áo-. The members of this category are forms with the Plural stem itJgái- (root-morpheme itJgáo- - wash) and forms with the Plural stem tekái- (root-morpheme tekáo- - draw (water); e.g.

itJgáidiu - we will wash (here),

tekáitJákam - they drew (water) below.

c. Th e -uo- + i cat ego r y.

Members of this category have a Plural stem ending in -uói-, corresponding with a root-morpheme ending in -uo-. These members are forms with the Plural stem sebuói- (root-morpheme sebuo- - sew) and with the Plural stem spuói- (root-morpheme spûo- - take off), e.g.

sebuóidiu - we will sew (here),

spuóisiám - they take off (clothes) there.

D. Th e -iI:!- cat ego r y.

The members of this category have a Plural stem, ending in -itJ-, which is formally identical with the root-morpheme. These members are forms with the stem tJgesitJ- - wipe off, e.g.

tJgesitJku - we wiped off (here),

tJgesinsiáram - they will wipe oH there.

E. Th e -ye-, -yéicat ego r y.

Members of this category have a plural stem ending in -yéi-, whereas the corresponding root-morpheme ands in -:S'r-. The members of this category are forms with the Plu ral stem sl~yéiroot-morpheme skye- - smoke) e.g.

skyéitiam - they smoke (here),

skyéitJáktt - we smoked below.

F. Th e -fe-, -ficat ego r y.

The members of this category have a Plural stem ending in -ii-, whereas the corresponding root-morpheme ends in -ie-. These members are forms with the Plural stem sii- (root-morpheme sie- - squeeze), e.g.

siikam - they squeezed (here),

siibáru - we will squeeze above.

8. Blockading category of the Flrst + Second Per80n DuaI.

There is only one blockading category of the First + Second Person Dua!. lts members have the same forms as those of the Productive category except for having an extra element -mat'j- (-met'jif followed by an Actor morpheme of the Apophonic series) which immediately precedes the Tense morpheme in Momentary forms of the First Position category, the Iterative morpheme in Iterative forms of the First Position category, and the Position morpheme in all the other forms; e.g. hrikemendim - you and we will deseend (here) (cf. hrikedu - we two will descend here).

The members of this category are:

Unspecified Object forms with the root-morphemes hri- - descend, ka'fj- - emaciate, t'jgyt'j - fall, uu- - answer, iapÓfJ- - bathe, kry- - flee, teyi- - jump, prit'j - be startled, ué'fj- - swing, nit'j- - stand up, kryá- - defecate, uásit'j- - pass, káo- - hide oneself, sye- - swim, téy- - trembie, kakrá- - die, tóut'j- - float, rise to the surface, zero, with lexical meaning "go", zero, with lexical meaning "dream" (cf. § 2, E.), zero, with lexical meaning "make cat's-cradles" (cf. § 2, K.), dekuo- - enter, rekii- - turn round, face about, re- - put on (clothes), réi - sleep;

Unspecified Object forms of the Second to Fifth Position categories with the root-morpheme kri- - flee;

Unspecified Object forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories with the root-morpheme bekéi- - ri se, climb;

Momentary forms with zero root-morpheme and the lexical meaning "hear" (cf. § 2, K.);

Iterative forms of the Unspecified Object with the root-morphemes ty- - hear many,

zero, with lexical meaning "laugh" (cf. § 2, E.);

Plural Object forms with the root-morphemes

iii- - divide, distribute,

kri- - close, shut,

kib- - beat, hit,

tebá- - bake, fry;

the forms with the root-morphemes kriand tebá- are in competition with members of the productive category.

9. Blockading category of the First Person PluraI.

The members of the only blockading category of the First Person Plural differ from those of the productive category in the same way as the members of the blockading category of the First + Second Person Dual, i.e. in having the element -matJ- (metJ-), e.g. hriméndy - we will descend (here) (cf. hridy - I will descend (here).

The members of this category are:

Unspecified Object forms with the root-morphemes

kry- - flee, tetJgréitJ- - lead the way, tóutJ- - float, rise to the surface, rekii- - turn round, face about,

butJ- - wait,

teyi- - jump,

pritJ- - he startled,

uétJ- - swing,

nitJ- - stand up,

uásitJ- - pass,

dekuo- - enter,

re- - put on (clothes), tekîm- - move, kryá- - defecate, ái- - scream, kafj- - emaciate, fjgYfj- - fall, ItU- - answer, réi- - sleep, kakrá- - die, téy- - trembIe, sye- - swim, zero, with lexical meaning "go", zero, with lexical meaning "dream" (cf. § 2, E.), zero, with lexical meaning "make cat's-cradles" (cf. § 2, K.); Iterative forms of the Unspecified Object with the root-morphemes ty- - hear many, kifj- - gaze, stare, zero, with lexical meaning "laugh" (cf. § 2, E.);

Momentary forms of the Unspecified Object with zero root-morpheme and the lexical meaning "hear" (cf. § 2, K.);

Unspecified Object forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories with the root-morpheme bekéi- - rise, c1imb.

10. Blockadlng category of the Third Person PlmaI.

There is only one blockading category of the Third Person Plural. 1 ts members are characterized by the Actor morpheme -um (-ym if they belong to a category having Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series) and the Singular stem of the root-morpheme, so that their form is identical with that of the corresponding Third Person Neutral Singular.

The members of this category are Unspecified Object forms with the root-morphemes:

ii- - burn,

réi- - sleep,

iapófj- - bathe,

yy- - rise together,

patiá- - hold a pig-feast.

The forms with root-morpheme patiá- are in competition with members of the productive category.

Some examples:

yykum - they rose together (here),

iibérym - they will bum above,

iapuándum - they will bathe (here),

riátym - they sleep (here),

patiáresárum or patiáiresáram - they will hold a pig-feast there.

11. Blockading category of the Eighth POSitiOR.

The members of this category are characterized by a Po si ti on morpheme sathat may have an accent and by having the common Actor morphemes instead of those of the Apophonic series. In the Future forms the Tense morpheme is -r-. The members of this category have zero root-morpheme and the lexical meaning "go". For the Singular forms free variants are found, having initial h instead of s. Examples:

kesáre - you two will go from here to below,

sátam or hátam - he goes from here to below.

12. Blockading category of the Ninth PositiOR.

Members of this category are characterized by a Position morpheme -nawhich may have an accent, and by the Actor morphemes not being of the Apophonic series. The morpheme of the Future is -r-.

The members of this category have zero root-morpheme and the lexical meaning "go", e.g.

náru - I will go from here to far away,

kenátum - they two go from here to far away.

13. Blockading category of the TeRth POSitiOR.

Members of this category differ from those of the productive category in having the common Actor morphemes instead of the Apophonic series.

They have zero root-morpheme and the lexical meaning "go"; e.g.

kantám - he goes (comes) from above (far away) to here,

kekandu - we two will go from above (far away) to here.

14. Blockading category of the FifteeRth PositioR.

The members of this category are different from those of the Verh. dl. 44 11 productive category only in having the common series of Actor morphemes instead of the Apophonic. They are forms with the rootmorpheme tety- - fall off, and forms with zero root-morpheme and the lexical meaning "go"; e.g.

kenáru - I will go from above (below, there) to far away,

tetykenanóm - it falls from above (there) to far away.

15. Blockadlng categories of the Infinitlve.

A. Th e -00 ca tegory.

Members of this category end in -áo, whereas the corresponding root-morpheme ends in -á. The members of this category are:

bekáo - kick,

hráo - to carry on the shoulder,

iáo - to rub,

kráo - to sweep,

ndáo - to feel,

sáo - to drive away,

táo - to put (many objects),

tebáo - to fry,

tebáo - to give a wife,

tekiáo - to break open, to burst.

B. The -áu category.

Members of this category end in -áu, whereas the corresponding root-morphemes end in -á. These members are:

káu - to vomit,

práu, - to dance,

ráu - to roast (many things),

tráu - to make (a garden).

C. T h e -y cat e 'g 0 r y.

The members of this category end in -y, just like the corresponding root-morphemes. They are:

iaby - to gather,

teky - to put (against a waU, etc.), uauy - to take along,

tety - to fall oH.

D. Th e -i cat ego r y.

The members of this category end in -i and are identical in form with the corresponding root-morphemes. These members are:

kri - to flee,

hri - to descend,

ii - to bum,

teyi - to jump.

E. Th e -6u c a te gory.

Members of this category end in -óu, whereas the corresponding root-morphemes end in -ó. These members are:

damgóu - to yawn,

tapóu - to help,

uóu - to paddie.

F. Th e -si" cat ego r y.

The members of this category are characterized by an element -sit} immediately following the root-morpheme. These members are:

kánsifj - to put into the hair (root-morpheme kafJ-) ,

iásifj - to bathe (root-morpheme iá-),

usit} - to say (root-morpheme uwithout accent),

usifJ - fall (rain) (root-morpheme uwithout accent).

In some members, corresponding with verb-forms with zero rootmorpheme, the place of the root-morpheme is occupied by the morpheme of the blockading Unspecified Object category to which those corresponding forms belong. This is the case with:

tásit} - to hear (see § 2, K.),

tásifJ - to make cat's-cradles (see § 2, K.),

rásifJ - to dream (see § 2, E.).

16. Blockadlng words for the Inflnltlve.

Words which occupy the place of an Infinitive (because of their meaning), so that this place is blocked for a normal Infinitive form, but do not belong to a category, are the following:

uuo - to answer (cf. root-morpheme uu-),

hréi - to lay across (cf. root-morpheme hre-),

kéifj - to follow (cf. root-morpheme kefj-),

fjgye - to c1eave (cf. root-morpheme fjgy-),

pye - to light (a fire) (cf. root-morpheme péy-),

pye - to swell (cf. root-morpheme péy-),

spóu - to take off (c1othes) (cf. root-morpheme spuo-),

sii - to squeeze (cf. root-morpheme sie-),

teniáfj - to appear, come out (cf. root-morpheme tenéifj-),

náo - to break up (cf. root-morpheme nóu-),

ruóu - to tell (cf. root-morpheme ro-),

dáo - to give (many objects) (cf. root-morpheme do-),

ráo - to sleep (cf. root-morpheme réi-).

17. Blockadlng category and a blockadlng word tor the Final Infinitlve.

The members of the only blockading category for the Final Infinitive are characterized by reduplication of the initial consonant, with the vowel e in between, in spite of this initial consonant (in the Infinitive) already being followed by an e without accent and immediate1y followed by another consonant.

The members of this category are:

bebesib - in order to bend (Infinitive besib),

bebetáo - in order to pull out (Infinitive betáo),

bebetyb - in order to throw away (Infinitive bet}'b),

dedekuo - in order to enter (Infinitive dektto),

sesebuo - in order to sew (Infinitive sebuo),

tetebáo - in order to fry (Infinitive tebáo).

The place for a Final Infinitive corresponding with the Infinitive usifj - to say, is blockaded by the word uensifj - in order to say.

IV. THE ADDITIONAL CATEGORIES OF THE VERB-SYSTEM.

1. The Femlnine Object category.

The members of this category are characterized in the same way as the corresponding Masculine Object forms but have, in addition, Actor morphemes of the Apophonic series. The categorie meaning is "the action is connected with an object, consisting of one or two beings of the female sex".

The members of this category are forms with the root-morphemes:

yé- - signal, iyé- - signal, kyéb- - signal, and tJgéitJ- - forget, corresponding with Masculine Object forms of the -dematJ-, rematJ- category (see § 3, D.);

ro- - tell, corresponding with Masculine Object forms of the -rematJ- - category (see § 3, C.);

téi- - give, do- - give many objects, and forms with zero rootmorpheme, having the lexical meaning "hear", corresponding with Masculine Object forms of the -tematJ- category (see § 3, E.).

Some examples:

kyépkremembedy - we will signal her from here to above,

róiremembékim - they told her above,

tietemctJketJéy - I give her below,

dóitiemenséy - we give her there (many things),

temen dim - you and I will hear her (here).

2. The category of the Second Person PluraI.

Members of this category have the same formal characteristics as the corresponding forms of the Second Person Dual but, in addition, have an element -matJ- (metJ- if followed byan Actor morpheme of the Apophonic series) immediately preceding the Tense morpheme in Momentary forms of the First Position category, the Iterative morpheme in Iterative forms of the First Position category, and the Position morpheme in all the other forms. The categorie meaning is "the action is attributed to a plural person addressed, as the actor".

So we find ká'fjkeméndi - you (plur.) will emaciate, opposed to ká'fjkedi - you two will emaciate; hrikeme'fjkenti - you (plur.) deseend from above to here, opposed to hrikekenti - you two descend from above to here.

The members of this category are:

Unspecified Object forms with the root-morphemes kry- - flee, bu'J- - wait, tefJgréi'J- - lead the way, teyi- - j ump, ué'J- - swing, pri'J- - be startled, ni'J- - stand up, uási'J- - pass, tóu'J- - float, dekuo- - enter, rekii- - turn round, re- - put on (c1othes), tekim- - move, kryá- - defecate, réi- - sleep, uu- - answer, 'JgY'J- - faU, ka'J- - emaciate, ái- - scream, kakrá- - die, téy- - trembIe, sye- - swim;

Unspecified Object forms of the productive category with zero rootmorpheme, having the lexical meaning "go";

Unspecified Object forms of the -racategory (see § 2, E.) with zero root-morpheme, lexical meaning "dream";

Unspecified Object forms of the -tacategory (see § 2, K.) with zero root-morpheme, lexical meaning "make cat's-cradles" ;

Momentary forms of the -tacategory of the Unspecified Object (see § 2, K.) with zero root-morpheme, lexical meaning "hear" ;

Iterative forms of the Unspecified Object category with the rootmorphemes ty- - hear many, and kitJ- - gaze;

Iterative forms of the -racategory of the Unspecified Object (see § 2, E.) with zero root-morpheme, lexical meaning "laugh";

Unspecified Object forms of the Sixth to Sixteenth Position categories with root-morpheme bekei- - ri se, c1imb.

V. THE MORI'HOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF THE I'RONOUNS.

1. Introduction.

The morphological system of the pronouns consists of a limited number of categories. These categories can not be called productive, because the number of the root-morphemes with which they occur is also limited. These root-morphemes are:

t3ahaving the lexical meaning "I, we" (the person addressed never inc1uded),

kowith the lexical meaning "you",

nowith the lexical meaning "he, she, it, they",

ió- with the lexical meaning "you and I, you and we",

na13- with the lexica I meaning "who ?".

The forms with the root-morpheme 13abear asemantic relation to the First Person category of the verb-system, those with root-morpheme koto the Second Person category, those with noto the Third Person categories, and those with ió- to the First + Second Person category. All categories of the pronoun-system are mutually exc1usive; so they are of the same order.

2. The zero category.

Members of this category are characterized by having the form of the bare root-morpheme; their common semantical element is "absence of stress and of explicit syntactic relation". The members are ko, no, and ió. For the root-morpheme 13athis category is blockaded by the word 130 - I, me, we, us.

3. The -me category.

The members of this category are characterized by the element -me which immediately follows the root-morpheme and has no accent. The semantical element common to them is "stress" or "serial relation", e.g.

fJáme - I!, me!,

nóme, kóme, maria ne - she, and you, and Mary.

For the root-morpheme 0013- this category is blockaded by the word náne - who?, and who?

4. The ·mbe eategory.

The members of this category are characterized by an element -mbe which immediately follows the root-morpheme and has no accent. Their common element of meaning is "possession" (in a broad sense), e.g.

1Jámbe - of me, mine, my, of us, our, ours,

kómbe - of you, your, yours.

For the root-morpheme na'3- this category is blockaded by the word nánde - whose?, of whom?

5. The .myene category.

The members of this category are characterized by an element -mycne immediately following the root-morpheme. The y of this morpheme has the accent. The common element of meaning is "to, at", so that the members have the same syntactical valence as phrases consisting of a substantive and the postposition ne, like iamó ne - to the house, e.g.

'3amyene - to me, to us, namyene - to whom ?

From the last example it appears that the final '3 of the rootmorpheme na'3- reacts to a m, immediately following within the word, in the same way as the final '3 of root-morphemes of verbs.

6. The ·mso category.

The members of this category are characterized by a formal element -mso immediately following the root-morpheme and by the semantical element "towards, t~". In free variation with them, forms are found having h instead of the s of the morpheme, e.g.

nómso or nómho - to him, to her, to it, to them,

kómso or kómho - to you.

For the root-morpheme na'3- this category is blockaded by the words ná'3ho and nánso, both meaning "to whom ?".

7. The ·msié eateg'ory.

The members of this category are characterized by an element -msié which immediately follows the root-morpheme and has the accent on its final vowel, and by the semantical element "from", e.g.

iomsié - from you and me, from you and us, namsié - from whom?

VI. MORPHOLOGICAL CATEGORIES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE.

1. Introductlon.

The morphological possibilities of substantives are sa few that we can hardly speak of a morphological system. There are only two categories, neither of them productive. The number of their members is also very small.

2. The necategory.

The members of this category are characterized by an element newhich immediately precedes the root-morpheme and has the wordaccent, if the root-morpheme has only one vowel. Their common element of meaning is "relationship to a person or persons other than the speaker and the person (or persons) addressed".

The members of this category are:

ném - her husband (cf. hm - man, husband),

nemensé - his (her, their) brother-in-law, his (her, their) sister-inlaw (cf. mensé - brother-in-law, sister-in-law),

nemáse - his (her, their) son (cf. berenzáse - your son, see § 3),

ne13gesie - his (her, their) daughter (cf. bere13gesie - your daughter, see § 3),

nétJki - his wife (his, their wifes) (cf. ki - woman, wife).

The small number of members of the category makes it impossible to decide, in how far the forms néru and nét)ki might he called irregular.

3. The berecategory.

The two memhers of this category have an element bere-, immediately preceding the root-morpheme, and the semantical element "relationship to the person (or persons ) addressed". They are:

bere13gesie - your daughter (cf. net)gesie - his, her, or their daughter), bere1'l'Ulse - your son (cf. nemáse - his, her, or their son).

So the forms corresponding with them are found in the necategory (see § 2).

INDEX OF TERMS

The numbers refer to the pages where the term is introduced or defined, or where the subject is discussed.

accent, 36 action, 57 Actor categories, 57 adaptation (of loan-words), 44 additional categories, 123 adjective, 120 Apophonic series of Actor morphemcs, 72

blockading categories, 54, SS, 123 blockading words, 55

categorie meaning, 53 categories, 51 competition, 55 conditioned word-alternants, 40, 41 consonants, 9 sqq. consonant-sequences, 31

Dual, 83 Durative, 107

Eighth Position category, 72 Eleventh Position category, 74 extra-systematical phonemes, 9 extra-systematical consonantsequence, 36

Feminine Object, 164 Fifteenth Position category, 77 Fifth Position category, 63 Final Infinitive, 114 First Person, 56 First + Second Person, 80 First + Second Person Dual, 85 First Secondary Verb category, 117 Fourteenth Position category, 77 Fourth Position category, 63 free alternants, 40, 42 Future, 58

Improductive categories, 54

Infinitive, 111 Infinitive (Final), 114 interj ection, 9, 36 I terati ve, 97

lexical meaning, S3 loan-words, 43

Masculine Object, 103 Momentary, 98 morphemes, 51

Ninth Position category, 73

Object (Feminine), 164 (Masculine), 103 (Plural) , 105 (Unspecified), 106 order of morphological categories, SS order of sound-characteristics, 7

Past, 58 phoneme, 8 Plural, 91 Plural Object, 105 Plural Stem, 93 Position categories, 62, 79 Present, 58 Present - Recent Past, 69 productivity, 54 pronoun, 167

Recent Past, 60 root-morpheme, 52

Second Person, 56 Second Person Plural, 165 Second Position category, 62 Second Secondary Verb category, 121 Secondary Verb category (First), 117

(Second), 121 (Third), 122 set (morphological), 52 Seventh Position category, 71 Singular Stem, 87 Sixteenth Position category, 78 Sixth Position category, 70 speed-alternants, 40 Stem (Plural), 93 (Singular), 87 substantive, 169 sub-words, 7, 39 suppletioll, 56 system (morphological), 55 system of phonemes, 9

Tense, 60 Tenth Position category, 73

Third Person Masculine, 57 Third Person Neutral, 58 Third Position category, 63 Third Secondary Verb category, 122 Thirteenth Position category, 75 Twelfth Position category, 75

Unspecified Object, 106

valence, 52 verb, 56 vowels, 10 vowel-seqllences, 27

word,7 word-alternants, 39

zero morphemes, 53

INDEX OF NIMBORAN WORDS

Hononymous forms are not kept apart. Root-rnorphernes and sterns are marked with a hyphen.

ái, 18, 116

bekéi, 11, 17, 115 ái-, 94, 160, 166 bekie-, 135 áiam, 47 bembéi'J, 16, 29 ámbo'J, 26, 46 bembu'J, 115 bmáe, 11 amrika, 33 ánsiIJ, 21 benaeskárll, 12, 29 apiá'J, 13, 116 bellá'J, 44 bendéra, 47 apiá'J-, 130 ari'JgJ', 47 be'Jgá'J, 12, 22 asó, 13 be'Jgrib, 17, 22 be'Jgimy''J, 12 ba, 11, 13, 15, 23 beráo, 19 bábll, 17 bére, 42 bái, 11, 17, 29 beremáse, 169 baió, 17 bere'Jgesie, 169 besám, 13, 24 besi, 19 banéi'Jglla'J, 30 bánia, 45 besib, 24, 164 ba'J, 17, 23 besib-, 32" 61 sqq., 96 besii-, 96 báre, 17, 42 besy'm, 13 betáo. 19, 164 básom, 43 betáo-, 89, 95 bató, 14, 121, 122 betaói-, 13, 9S betóm, 14 betllá-, 89 betûo, 46 bety'b, 164 bebesib, 164 bety' b-, 96, 132 bebetáo, 164 bety'i-, 96 bélle, 29 bie, 17, 113, 114 bebrub, 115 bie-, 94, 117, 121, 123 bebruibám, 32 biéi-, 94 bebuo, 114 biiáb, 10, 28 bra, 46 bedi, 10, 19 bránda, 46 brási'J-, 136, 143, 145 béi'J, 17 beká-, 56 sqq., 162 bre, 11, 45 bekáo, 162 brimbu, 10 bekéi-, 131, 136, 159, 160, 166 brob, 32

báky, 21

bá'Jko, 45

báru, 17

ballakró'J, 30

ballá'J, 44

be, 11, 41

bébe, 45

bebety'b, 164

bebie, 114

beby'e, 40 brouári, 31 dent, 12 bróllfjgye, 40 demamdó,33 demápl'o, 14 brólIl'Jye, 40 demoiáku, 31 brub, 16, 113, 115 brub-, 32, 61 sqq" 96 demsil'J, 33 demue, 14, 17, 30 brui-, 96 brul'J, 17 demy' e, 14, 18 bu, 13, 15, 17 dendám, 115 buá, 15, 17 dendéil'J, 115 buásom, 43 dendóul'J, 115 buen, 20, 121 dendy'l'J, 115 bueI'J-, 153 densiál'J, 13, 24, 34 buherái, 27 densiól'J, 13, 29 bui-, 95 dep:/e, 16 bul'J, 17, 115 desû, 19 bul'J-, 133, 144, 147, 154, 159, 166 déy, 18, 113 buo, 15, 114 di, 11, 19, 21 bûo-, 95 dié, 41 bltserái, 27 dió, 19, 20 by'e, 16 dipróki, 14, 15 do, 15, 19 dabum, 12 do-, 133, 143, 164, 165 dob-, 136, 137 dáe, 16, 19, 29 daiáb, 29 dói, 31, 46 dam, 12, 19, 115 dóu, 113 dóu-, 145 dam-, 33, 111, 132 damgó-, 163 dóul'J, 17, 115 damgóu, 22, 33, 163 dóltl'J-, 131 dámo,46 dréy, 19 dan/ru, 34 dri-, 90, 113 drie-, 90 dál'JOu, 35 dáo, 19, 112, 113, 164 drii, 113, 115 darib, 10 dro-, 155 droá-, 155 dauém, 30 dáytj, 29 drói-, 95 de, 11, 41 drólt, 34 debûm, 12, 16 dróu-, 95, 155 du, 11, 15 deby', 13 dedekûo, 164 dllm, 19 dÛl'Jgril'J, 35 dedrii, 115 d3'-, 87, 113 dedy' e, 11, 18 déÏI'J, 17, 115 dy' e-, 87 dy' eI'J-, 88 déil'J-, 133 dekám, 18 dy'il'J-, 147 dekáo, 13 d:.'I'J, 115 dyl'J-, 88, 141, 147, 149 dekáo-, 89, 95 dekaói-, 13, 30, 95 dekie, 11 hlltJe, 46 dekuá-, 89 dekuánt, 40 ell1h('rckásc, 24, 47 (,l1sié, 45 dekûo, 13, 164 epie, 11, 12, 16 dekuo-, 131, 158, 159, 166 deky' e, 11, 16 esie, 10, 16 ge, 22, 41 gué, 41 haMYI" 27 habûm, 27 haió, 17, 23, 27, 29 hakré, 43 hakrery'm, 43 háku, 21 hámbo"J,26 hambuáYl" 17, 20 hamoYl,gráYl" 27, 38 hamo"Jgreinty'YI" 38 handáYl" 21, 42 handiáYl" 42 haYl,gái, 27 hapruo, 42 harimiYl,gu, 47 háru, 18 hemiYl,. 26 henáYl" 26 heni, 18, 21, 22 heni",kenó, 35 hCYl,g éiYl" 43 I!cYI,gó, 26 hCYl,gréiYl" 19 hl1aYl,. 25, 36 hne.26 hno, 25, 27 hYl,gri, 36, 42 hYl,griuái, 42 ho, 26 hra-, 162 hraké, 43 hrakery'm, 43 hróo, 25, 162 hrap, 13, 24. 36 hre-, 164 hré:,', 19, 116 hri, 11, 24, 36, 116, 163 hri-, 124, 158

hákc, 11, 26

háma, 46

haprua, 42

hal/Ua, 30

háye, 11, 24, 27

hcrikenûm, 24

ImulIl, 25, 36

hYl,ári, 25, 36

hYl,yi, 36, 42

hréi, 164

hremái, 42

hrcmé, 42

hrié-, 127, 153 hrii-, 127, 153 hrim, 10 hriYl" 16 hru, 11, 169 hrub, 17, 116 hrllb-, 97 hruCYl,-, 154 hrui-, 97 hruYl" 17, 113, 116 hruYl,-, 154 hry-, 87 hry'e-, 87 hrym, 10, 16, 22, 24 hui,30 i-, 124, 125, 141, 153, 156 iá-, 124, 156, 162, 163 iaby', 162 iaby' -, 136, 139, 145 iakéy, 21, 29 iakéy-, 131 iakó, 18, 28 iaklléi, 30 iáky, 22 iám, 28 iambeápdi, 29 iamó, 13, 18 iámso"J, 33 iantéiYl,-, 130 iántCYl,-, 130, 142, 149, 150 iáYl" 25 iá"J-, 126, 141, 150, 151 iáYl,gu, 16 iaYl,gudc1llóiib, 31 iÓ"Jgy, 12 ill'3i-, 126 iá"luo"J, 30 iáo. 14, 15, 28, 117, 162 iápi. 16 iapó"J-, 124, 158, 160 iapscnóYI" 32 iáre, 10, 12, 24 iári, 10, 11, 16 iáru, 10, 12, 14, 24 iáry, 14 iási'J. 117, 163 iáu, 13, 15, 24, 28 iauá, 28, 121 iáu"J, 28 iáuo, 15, 28 iauóYl" 28

iauûo, 28 iáy, 14, 22, 28

ieiáo, 117 inskuo, 34 i"3gáo, 14, 116 i~gáo-, 154, 157 i"3geniém, 43 irJgiám/m, 42 ió, 14, 20, 29, 167 ió-, 167 ipó, 16

ibû, 17

iéi, 28

ibûo, 14, 17

ieiási~, 117

iembrokáse, 47

ienó, 28

ié~gy, 12

ie;:.'eni"3, 11, 28

ié:vi, 28

ii-, 160

iii, 10, 28

ii, 15, 28, 163

iii-, 128, 159

iingáo, 116

iisiû, 1]6

iiró, 116

ikeká, 19

imûo, 17

imó, 13, 16, 18

imy'''3, 10

imokáero. ]2

imstûm, 33

indio"3grá"3, 43

indió, 21

indiû"3. 19

indio"3éimm, 23, 29

iniéuo. 28, 43

iniie, 28

iniim, 28

inióiam, 42

inióm, 10, 21

insiûm, 21, 24, 28

insri"3, 34

intiY'1II, 21

ingá-, 154

ingái-, 157

i"3gámbu, 42

i"3gmém, 43

i"3gólI"3, 14

iomsié, 169

iÓII, 13, 29

iré, 12, 24

iró-, 131

iró, 15, 18, 116

iroá, 31

irû. 12, 24

irólI, 15 isie 10 isiû, 24, 42, 116 ;siû-. 135 isû, 17, 19, 24, 42 isû-, 135 iteká, 19 itiaokrû, 28 iuárom, 28 ka-, 124, 162 kakrá-, 128, 158, 160, 166 kakróu-, 143, 156 kakrui-, 156 kamsyári, 29

iry'b. 24

itiymbi, 28

itû, 19

iû,28

iuf, 15, 28

iumurû, 28

iy', 14,28

i::.,'b-, 96

i)'é, 28, 45

iyé, 130, 144, 151, 165

iyi-, 130

iy'i-, 96

i;:,'indá"3, 28

ka, 10, 13, 14

kab, 21

kabi, 42

kabó. 17

kadó, 17

káe, 11, 19

kaiáo, 29

káiin, 29, 44

kaiteró, 14, 29

kakrá, 34

kakróu, 43

kamtuo, 30, 33

kandóu"3, 34

kánsi"3, 163

ka~, 22

ka"3-, 124, 158, 160, 163, 166

káo-, 89, 129, 158

káo"3-, 89

kapeuám, 29

karéy, 21

karó~, 23

kasbéuo"3, 11, 29, 36 kásbi, 45

kebó, 12, 14, 42

káse, 45

kásilltJ, 45

kasmándo, 36

káu, 162

kalláe, 13, 30

kalláe-, 130

kauái-, 130

kauáo, 30

kaltua, 30

kauydu, 30

káy, 14, 29

kebá, 42

kebi, 17, 42

kebuá, 19, 30

keikáo, 21, 29, 40

keby', 12, 14

kéit}, 164

keiru, 11

keitré, 11, 33

keki, 12, 17, 21, 22

kekiá, 12

keruáb,23

keklly'e, 21, 30

kemua, 42

kemuo, 42

kemy'e, 18

kenái, 20

kenáu, 30

kendó, 38

kené, 10, 11

keni, 10, 12, 19, 22

kefJ-, 133, 136, 143, 145, 146, 164

kefJkf'3, 115

kip, 16

kertáse, 45

keré, 12

kefJkry'tJ, 116

kcsy'e, 18

kitap, 45 ka, 18, 22, 167 ko-, 129, 167 kómbc, 168 kóme, 167 kómso, 26, 168 kontroási, 31, 34 kotJ, 14, 22 kotJ-, 133, 146 kra, 14 kra-, 162 krakóu, 43 krakóu-, 143, 156 krakui-, 156 kráo, 30, 162 kráo-, 95, 154 krapó, 15 kratáse, 45 kre, 12 kre-, 131 krebémku, 33 krcndiyá, 28 krendiyá-, 127 kréy-, 88 kri, 163 krie-, 129 krom, 21 kruá-, 88 kruái-, 96 krlláu-, 88, 96 kryá, 14 kryá-, 133, 158, 160, 166 kry'e-, 88 kry'efJ-, 94, 114 kuá-, 89, 143

kómho, 26, 168

kitJ, 16, 112, 115

keti, 17, 19

kitJ-, 124, 128 138, 141, 142, 148, 149, 153, 160, 166

kib-, 32, 132, 143, 159

ki, 10, 16, 169

Verh. dl. 44

ki-, 128, 138

kib, 16,22

kraói-, 30, 95

kie, 11, 17, 21, 25, 28, 37

kieténdy, 40

kri-, 64, 124, 128, 132, 135, 159

kieróm, 28

kiefJ-, 138, 141, 153

kié, 11, 28, 37

kie-, 138

kroá-, 154

króu-, 117, 118, 119, 143, 156

llrui-, 156

kruo-, 24, 117

kr)'-, 124, 158, 159, 166

kry'i-, 135

kry' itJ-, 94

krym, 22, 24, 34

kr)'fj, 114, 116

ku, 14

kuáb,22

kuáe, 11, 13, 30

kuáebu, 30

kllátJ-, 89

;:111 kuartakuém, 35

mensé, 12, 169 mensue, 11, 34 mensy', 12, 21 mentimulJ, 46 mentitj, 12, 18, 21, 34 metjgyá-, 90 Inetjgy'e, 18 metjg}'éi, 12 metjg}'éi-, 90, 94 mére, 37, 42 meré, 37, 40 merite, 46 méro, 40 mési, 11 mes~/, 21 méue, 29 méllo, 11, 29 méy, 12, 14, 18 mina, 45 mindalló, 30 minia, 45 minie, 21, 40 milJ, 18 mitjgc, 43 11lilJgic, 40, 43 milJnántcku, 35 mo, 12, 14, 18 máre, 12, 17, 24, 42 1I1oáib, 31 111I1á-, 139 máro, 12 1I1z10, 15, 114 1I1ÛO-. 130 !tab, 21 lIác, 21 náku, 21 namátjrcb, 35 na11lbrllólJ, 42 namsié, 169 námll, 18 Iw1nuán, 20 namy' cnc, 29, 168 méiu, 29 nanási, 46 nandálJ, 21 memuo, 114 nánde, 20, 168 nándu, 20 nánc, 20, 21, 167 nántekll, 15, 34 menduáll, 30 !tatj, 17, 21, 25

kudipró, 19

kuiám, 30

kuirób, 15, 30

kuisu, 30

kuotenátj, 14

kUÓ11, 31

kûpskitj, 32

ky, 13, 14

kyéb-, 32, 130, 144, 151, 165

ky' etj-, 88

kym, 16, 47

kym-, 33, 131

kytj, 14

kyp, 16

kytj-, 88, 124

ma, 12, 18

mab, 13, 16

mensillá, 28

máise, 43

makó, 21

mam, 17, 18

mámbrob, 14, 33

l1lái, 17, 18, 39, 41 meyosûo, 11, 29

menó, 11

mánitj, 10

manó, 21

mániym, 28, 43

mánym, 43

maokri, 30

maréma, 13

máru, 18

maroiáb, 31

masatekáte, 38

máse, 24, 43

matéb, 11

mbáreitj, 33

mbflasié, 9

mbrÏIJ, 33

me, 12, 14, 39, 41, 42

meám, 29

média, 42, 45

médio, 42, 45

meni, 11, 18, 20

menditj, 18

méndro, 34, 47

mendu, 12

mellduáb, 19

méndy, 18

nánso, 168

natj-, 167 ná~grei, 10, 24, 29

ná~ho, 168 náo, 16, 19, 20, 21, 164 náre, 42 nárob, 24 nási~, 10, 21 nátll, 18, 19 náu, 19 nalló~, 30 nda-, 162 ndaió, 29 ndáo, 20,162 IIde, 11 ndéi, 11 ndi, 12, 19, 21 ndie, 12, 21 ndio~gr~, 43 ndop, 34 ne, 39 neikáo, 11, 40 nembie, 33 ncmensé, 169 lI~gá, 113 lI~gesie, 169 n~gy'-, 136, 139, 142 n~g:.v' e, 40 né~lli, 22, 35, 169 nére, 42 néru, 169 nie, 39, 42 niéuo, 43 ni~, 18 nip!l~, 46

ndien, 20

Ilémia, 28

néimbu, 43

nemáse, 169

nembruó~, 1, 42

némbu, 43

lIembruóu~, 1, 31

némpo, 15, 19, 33

nénski~, 34

ncnsyiáb, 29

lI~gui-, 95

n~guo, 115

n~gûo-, 95

n~gy'b, 13

nié, 39, 41, 42

lIimbroll~, 10, 14, 31

ni~-, 135, 158, 159, 166

lIióiam, 29, 42

ilO, 21, 25, 167

no-, 167

lIoá-, 155

nom, 15 nóme, 167 nómho, 168 nómso, 168 nu, 17, 21 mlm, 15, 16 ~aió, 23

nóu-, 155, 164

~a-, 167

~ámbe, 168

~áme, 167

~ámho, 33

~amy' ene, 168

~a~, 18, 21, 22

~áre. 17, 23, 42

% 39, 41, 42

~éi, 23, 123

",éi-, 90, 94

~érc, 42

~gm:3, 22

~gatéy, 12, 29

~gedáu, 116

~gedáu-, 88, 95

",gedéy, 19, 113, 116

~gedéy-, 88, 93

",gedói-, 95

~gedóu-, 89

~gedllá-. 88

~gedûo-, 89

n,gcdy' e-, 88

~gcdy'i-, 14, 93

n,géi~, 35

~géi~-, 139, 142, 165

~geniém, 43

~g~gedáu, 116

~g~gedéy. 116

"'.'Jesi~-, 91

~gcsim, 22

~gesim-, 13

",gesi"" 23

",gesi",-, 91, 157

~getám, 40

",getá"" 40

~getéy, 12, 19

J1,getéy-. 93

~gety'i-. 14, 29, 93

~giái, 28

~gie, 23

",yra",. 10, 35

~grátrl/, 47

~39ratûc, 47

".lgremi, 1

".lgréy, 116

péi-, 90, 96 ".lgrengréy, 116 peitiuá, 18 pempéil'J, 16, 33 pempriá".l, 33 pl'mpriá"J-, 133 ".lgriefJ-, 91 pl'mpril'J, 116 ".lgri".l, 10, 113 ".lgriIJ-, 91 pePáia, 45 ".lgruá-, 89 pl'Práu, 115 peprib, 115 ".lgruáo, 30 ".lgruáo-, 89 pésta, 36, 45 ".lgru".l-, 34, 35, 56 sqq. péy-, 93, 164 piá-, 90 ".lgry-, 140 ".lgry'e, 12 piá"Jgu, 16 pil', 10 ".lgry' e-, 88 pinsil', 46 ".lgryéb-, 133 ".lguá, 18, 33 po, 16, 39, 41 fjguá-, 56 sqq., 89 pói-, 95 ".lguái".l, 30 pO".l,20 p0I'J-, 137, 138, 140, 144, 148 PÓII, 25, 31 ".lguo, 43 póu-, 89, 95 ".lguÓII-, 89 pra, 13, 43 pra-, 133, 162 ".lgy-, 87, 164 práisi, 29, 43 práo, 16 práo-, 141, 154 ".lgy'e-, 87 ".lgyéifj-, 94, 155 prási, 43, 47 ".lgYfj, 22, 23 práu, 43, 115, 162 ".lg}'fj-, 124, 158, 160, 166 préi, 29, 112, 113 fjiá-, 90 préi-, 90, 94 ".lO, 16, 21, 22, 23, 167 prl'1ltó".l, 43 ".luáro".l, 23 prcntóu".l, 43 pri, 11, 16 ".l)'éi, 13, 23 priá-, 90 prib, 115 prib-, 22, 32, 33, 38, 70 sqq., 96, 143, 145 oá, 31 prii-, 96 pril'J, 16, 24, 116 pril'J-, 134, 135, 158, 159, 166 pro, 11, 13, 15 proá-, 154 próul'J, 32 prliP, 45 pr:.'m, 16 puá-. 88 puáe, 43 PIII'J-, 128, 142 pyb, 12, 16, 113 peb-, 32, 61 sqq., 96, 126, 141, 150 péi, 16 pyb-, 32, 61 sqq., 96

".lgréy-, 88

".lguám, 18

".lgy, 43

fjguo-, 124

".lgy'e, 164

fjyá-, 90

".lyéi-, 90

0-, 156

opiámufj. 14

ornánil'J, 35

páe, 10, 13, 16, 43

pab, 16

Pákrup, IS, 24

pandái, 45

próuelll, 31

páo, 16

pásiuo, 29, 46

patiá-, 127, 160

Páll-, 88, 95

pe, 39, 41

peb, 12, 16, 113

pum, 15,16, 17

puo-, 89 py' e, 13, 164 saóiJ:3-, 95, 103 sqq. py'eJ:3-, 88 sáoJ:3-, 89, 95, 103 sqq., 114 py'i-, 96 saremái, 42 sarmái, 35 PYJ:3-, 88 sáltm,30 sbi, 36 ra-, 133, 162 sebuo, 113, 164 rábu, 45 sebuo-, 157 rádio, 45 sebuói-, 157 ráo. 24, 25, 164 semá"3ga, 45 rásÎ13, 21, 163 ráu, 112, 113, 162 semi"3, 26 sená"3, 26 ráJ'e, 24, 29 senskiJ:3, 116 re-, 132, 134, 138, 158, 159, 166 reb, 16, 24 sensó"3, 115 sCl'jgó,26 reb-, 16, 124, 133 sCl'jguám-, 130 réi-, 124, 134, 158, 160, 164, 166 reké, 11 sepátll, 45 seremái, 42 rekéi, 17 rekéi-, 130 seremé, 42 reki, 22 sesebuo, 164 seskáb, 115 rekii-, 131, 139, 142, 150, 158, 159, 166 rekuám, 19, 40 seskréy, 115 remé-, 121 SCSPÓll, 115 ses}'éiJ:3, 114, 115 rcngy'-, 136, 139, 142 rcngy' e, 18, 40, 115 séy, 19 répe. 46 siá, 11, 28 siáb, 113 reréy, 116 rer!, 116 siáb-, 96 siái-, 96 reriJ:3, 23 rerub, 116 siá':3, 25 ren/"3, 116 sib, 10, 16, 22 sie, 37 rie-, 91 rii-, 91, 94 sié, 37 rO,23 sie-, 94, 157, 164 ro-, 128, 142, 149, 152, 154, 164, 165 siéi-, 94 róbo, 46 siepátu, 45 róu, 15 sii, 10, 164 rue-, 154 sii-, 157, 158 rum, 19 siie, 28 ruÓIt, 15, 24, 164 si"3gi, 42 siljgri, 42 si"3griuá i, 28, 42 sa, 11, 13, 18 sa-, 126, 141, 149, 162 sip, 16 sabó, 27 skab, 115 sábllll, 46 skab-, 96, 141 sábuJ:3, 19, 46 skái-, 96 saiá"3gu, 27 skiá, 30 sam, 13, 19, 27, 113 skie, 25 skieténdy, 40 sam-, 33, 61 sqq. samo"3grá"3, 27 skil'j, 24, 116 skiJ:3-, 137, 142 sámsám, 38 skom, 36 sal'jgái, 27 sáo, 21, 24, 162 skréy, 36, 115 skry-, 137, 139 tayéi-, 89 tayiá-, 89 skuo, 14 sky'e, 113 tebá-, 132, 141, 159, 162 sky' e-, 157 tebáo, 14, 162, 164 tebie, 28 skyéi-, 157 téblt, 37 sne,26, 36 tcbu, 37 sno, 27, 36 tebllá, 19 sa. 26 so13. 14, 22, 23, 114, 115 téi. 16, 19, 113 téi-, 126, 141, 144, 150, 165 spátll, 45 spóu, 15, 25, 35, 115, 164 teiyien, 20 teká-, 154 spro13. 35 tekái-, 157 spuo-, 157, 164 spllói-, 157 tekám, 18 st, 36 tekáo-, 154, 157 su, 21 tekiá-, 162 suámpri13, 33 ti'k!e-, 130 tekilll-, 133, 160, 166 sltá13-. 35, 89, 103 sqq. sukudréi, 34 ti'kiáo, 28, 162 Slim, 18 tekû-, 126, 141, 150, 151 tekuá, 13 slI1ulauéi13, 30 tekuám, 19 SI/13. 17, 18 sûril'j, 46 tek:/, 162 sy. 13, 17 leky' -, 133 syb, 10, 17 tekyá-, 89 teky' e, 16, 29 sy' e-, 127, 158, 160, 166 tek~iéi-, 89 syéi, 23 tcmakué, 30 syéil'J, 114, 115 temánte, 47 s)'éil'J-, 94, 155 temáte, 45, 47 sy'sJ.', 45 tcmien, 28 ta, 39, 41 témpo, 19 temûl'J,23 ta-. 162 temy' Cl'J-, 153 tab, 13 tabûa, 30 temy'I'j, 113 temY'13-. 153 takryéi, 29 tenál'J, 11, 18 takuáb, 22 tendiyám, 28 takuém, 30 téndy, 18 tákuo, 30 tenéil'J, 115 tanttoái, 31, 33 tenéil'J-, 90, 132, 164 tánc, 11 teniál'J, 11, 164 tal'jgál'J. 13. 23 teniál'J-, 90 táo, 112, 113, 162 tentenéil'J. 115 tapó-. 149, 163 tentCl'Jgál'J, 115 tapólt, 163 taril'J9Y. 47 lentr!tJ, 116 tCl'Jgál'j, 113, 115 taruáb, 22 tCl'Jgátj-, 26, 35, 56 sqq. tási13, 163 tetjgéil'j, 23, 113 tauá, 30 tetjgéi13-, 90, 94 tauái, 30 táuo. 30 tetjgiá13-, 90 tauue, 30 tetjgréil'j, 19 tetjgréil'J-, 133, 159, 166 tayéi, 29 tCI'Jg 11 éifl. 30

/4-, 124, 125, 141, 156, 163 téroI'J. 44 uá, 17 uá-, 88 uái, 20, 30 tclré)', 115 uái-, 96 tety' -, 124, 162 !l!i ip on, 20 uáipoI'J, 20 té}>, 12. 19, 113 uáiprom. 32 téy-, 127, 158, 160, 166 ltaipllá, 30 uaisimoll, 20 te:yi-, 134, 158, 159, 166 uaiuári, 30 tl'}'ien, 29 uáke, 46 Hallsáia, 29 til', 17, 18 til'-, 126, 144, 150 IláI'Jkru, 35 uároI'J, 23, 30 uarlliéri, 30 uásiI'J-, 131, 158, 159, 166 uáu-, 88, 96 !lauy', 30, 163 !lally' -, 64, 139, 142, 147 tománte, 47 tomáte, 45, 47 Iteiál'J, 30 Itendi, 30 tóuI'J-, 127, 158. 159, 166 tra-, 162 IIe1tsil'J, 164 traI'J, 33 !léI'J, 12 uét'j-, 134, 158, 159, 166 traI'J-, 138, 142, 149 ué)', 30 !lib, 30 trie-, 91 IImie, IS, 18 Itnduo, 47 unie, 18 Ilflgûo, 43 1II'J9ÛO-, 124 triI'J-, 91 ufl9Y', 43 I/Ó, 25, 30, 113, 117 uó-, 56 sqq., 95, 155, 163 uói-, 95 tuá-, 89 luóll-, 89, 95 1I0upri. 31 t},-, 129, 140, 159, 160, 166 Itsifl, 23, 163, 164 ulób. 14 !tu-, 124, 126, 141, 151, 158, 160, 164, 166 uuáll, 117

teteháo, 164

teti}'ári, 18

tety', 18, 163

tet}'éÏI'J. 115

teyi, 11, 29, 163

tika, 42, 46

tiko, 42, 46

to, 39, 41

toh, 17

tóiI'J-, 127

tom, 17

I/áb, 15, 22

traI'Jkáu}', 30

tráo, ló, 113

tréy, 19, 115

tráu, 162

uáll, 30, 117

IriCI'J-, 91

lrii-, 91, 123

IriI'J, 116

Iróu-, 89

truo-, 89

try-, 126, 141, 150

t!/áI'Jgry, 47

tyéit'j-, 90

tllói-, 31, 95

I},éit'j, 29, 115

tUÓlI, 19

Iy'e-, 94

tym, 18

uia, 30

tllsé, 47

t.j'áI'J-, 90

t)"i-, 94

Iy'e, 12

lIió, 30

UÓI'J, 12

uóu, 19, 117, 163

lIÓU-, 89, 155

l/ráI'J,23

ItSÓ, 13, 25

IIsyéb, 29

!tuI'J, 30, 117 uuo, 30, 117, 164 UltÓ, 30, 117 uuóu, 30, 117

y'a, 29 yá,29, 117 yá-, 138, 142, 149 yé, 11, 13, 29, 43, 117 yé-, 130, 144, 151, 165

yésku, 13, 36 yi-, 130 yio, 29 yiódi, 29 yuá,29, 117 yué,29, 117 Y.)", 29 y:v' -, 124, 160

zero root-morpheme, lexical meaning:

be, 122, 135 become, 121 bring, 113, 129 dream, 129, 142, 149, 158, 160, 163, 166 extend, 134 go, 125, 158, 160, 161, 162, 166

hear, 134, 140, 143, 159, 160, 163, 165, 166 say, 151

kiss, 135, 140

laugh, 129, 159, 160, 166

make cat's-cradles, 134, 158, 160, 163, 166

sleep, 124, 134

TABLE OF VERB-FORMS

ROOT·MORPHEME qged6u·

SINGULAR STEM lJg'edóoPLURAL STEM IJged61.

INFINITIVE qged6u

FINAL INFINITIVE: IJg'elJg'ed6u

N.B. No aIternant forms are given in this tabIe.

(I)

UNSPECIFIED OBJECT — MOMENTARY

(II)

UNSPECIFIED OBJECT — MOMENTARY

Recent Past

(III)

UNSPECIFIED OBJECT — MOMENTARY

Recent Past

(IV)

UNSPECIFIED OBJECT — MOMENTARY

(I)

UNSPECIFIED OBJECT — ITERATIVE

Past

Sing. 1 ngedúokáku 2 ngedúokáke 3n. ngedúokákum 3m. ngedúokákam 1+2 ngedúomankakám Dual 1 ngedóukekáku 2 ngedóukekáke 3n. ngedóukekákum 3m. ngedóukekákam 1+2 ngedóukekakám Plur. 1 ngedóikáku 3 ngedóikákam

ngedúobekáku ngedúobekáke ngedúobekákum ngedúobekákam ngedúomambekakám ngedóukebekáku ngedóukebekáke ngedóukebekákum ngedóukebekákam ngedóukebekakám ngedóibekáku ngedóibekákam

ngedúongáku ngedúongáke ngedúongákum ngedúongákam ngedúomangakám ngedóukengáku ngedóukengáke ngedóukengákum ngedóukengákam ngedóukengakám ngedóingáku ngedóingákam

ngedúoskáku ngedúoskáke ngedúoskákum ngedúoskákam ngedúomanskakám ngedóukeskáku ngedóukeskáke ngedóukeskákum ngedóukeskákam ngedóukeskakám ngedóiskáku ngedóiskákam

(II)

UNSPECIFIED OBJECT — ITERATIVE

Past

Sing. 1 ngedúonengáku 2 ngedúonengáke 3n. ngedúonengákum 3m. ngedúonengákam 1+2 ngedúomanengakám Dual 1 ngedóukenengáku 2 ngedóukenengáke 3n. ngedóukenengákum 3m. ngedóukenengákam 1+2 ngedóukenengakám Plur. 1 ngedóiniengáku 3 ngedóiniengákam

ngedúobekáku ngedúobekáke ngedúobekákum ngedúobekákam ngedúomambekakám ngedóukebekáku ngedóukebekáke ngedóukebekákum ngedóukebekákam ngedóukebekakám ngedóibekáku ngedóibekákam

ngedúoskáku ngedúoskáke ngedúoskákum ngedúoskákam ngedúosmanskakám ngedóukeskáku ngedóukeskáke ngedóukeskákum ngedóukeskákam ngedóukeskakám ngedóiskáku ngedóiskákam

ngedúoskéky ngedúoskéki ngedúoskékym ngedúoskékim ngedúomenskekím ngedóukeskéky ngedóukeskéki ngedóukeskékym ngedóukeskékim ngedóukeskekim ngedóiskéky ngedóiskékim

(III)

UNSPECIFIED OBJECT — ITERATIVE

Past Sing. 1 2 3n. 3m. 1+2 Dual 1 2 3n. 3m. 1+2 Plur. 1 3

ngedúonengéky ngedúonengéki ngedúonengékym ngedúonengékim ngedúomenengekim ngedóukenengéky ngedóukenengéki ngedóukenengékym ngedóukenengékim ngedóukenengekim ngedóiniengéky ngedóiniengékim

ngedúongenký ngedúongenki ngedúongenkým ngedúongenkim ngedúomengenkim ngedóukengenký ngedóukengenki ngedóukengenkým ngedóukengenkim ngedóukengenkim ngedóingenký ngedóingenkim

ngedúobekánku ngedúobekánke ngedúobekánkum ngedúobekánkam ngedúomambekankám ngedóukebekánku ngedóukebekánke ngedóukebekánkum ngedóukebekánkam ngedóukebekankám ngedóibekánku ngedóibekánkam

ngedúoskánku ngedúoskánke ngedúoskánkum ngedúoskánkam ngedúomanskankám ngedóukeskánku ngedóukeskánke ngedóukeskánkum ngedóukeskánkam ngedóukeskankám ngedóiskánku ngedóiskánkam

(IV)

UNSPECIFIED OBJECT — ITERATIVE

Past Sing. 1 2 3n. 3m. 1+2 Dual 1 2 3n. 3m. 1+2 Plur. 1 3

ngedúobenengáku ngedúobenengáke ngedúobenengákum ngedúobenengákam ngedúomambenengakám ngedóukebenengáku ngedóukebenengáke ngedóukebenengákum ngedóukebenengákam ngedóukebenengakám ngedóibenengáku ngedóibenengákam

ngedúosenengáku ngedúosenengáke ngedúosenengákum ngedúosenengákam ngedúomansenengakám ngedóukesenengáku ngedóukesenengáke ngedóukesenengákum ngedóukesenengákam ngedóukesenengakám ngedóisienengáku ngedóisienengákam

ngedúokenengéky ngedúokenengéki ngedúokenengékym ngedúokenengékim ngedúomenkenengekim ngedóukekenengeky ngedóukekenengéki ngedóukekenengékym ngedóukekenengékim ngedóukekenengekim ngedóikenengéky ngedóikenengékim

ngedúosenengéky ngedúosenengéki ngedúosenengékym ngedúosenengékim ngedúomensenengekim ngedóukesenengéky ngedóukesenengéki ngedóukesenengékym ngedóukesenengékim ngedóukesenengekim ngedóisienengéky ngedóisienengékim

MASCULINE OBJECT — MOMENTARY

(I) 202

(II)

MASCULINE OBJECT — MOMENTARY

(III)

MASCULINE OBJECT — MOMENTARY

(IV)

MASCULINE OBJECT — MOMENTARY

(I)

MASCULINE OBJECT — ITERATIVE

Past

Sing. 1 ngedúorekáku 2 ngedúorekáke 3n. ngedúorekákum 3m. ngedúorekákam 1+2 ngedúoremankakám Dual 1 ngedóukrekáku 2 ngedóukrekáke 3n. ngedóukrekákum 3m. ngedóukrekákam 1+2 ngedóukrekakám Plur. 1 ngedóirekáku 3 ngedóirekákam

ngedúorebekáku ngedúorebekáke ngedúorebekákum ngedúorebekákam ngedúoremambekakám ngedóukrebekáku ngedóukrebekáke ngedóukrebekákum ngedóukrebekákam ngedóukrebekakám ngedóirebekáku ngedóirebekákam

ngedúorengáku ngedúorengáke ngedúorengákum ngedúorengákam ngedúoremangakám ngedóukrengáku ngedóukrengáke ngedóukrengákum ngedóukrengákam ngedóukrengakám ngedóirengáku ngedóirengákam

ngedúoreskáku ngedúoreskáke ngedúoreskákum ngedúoreskákam ngedúoremanskakám ngedóukreskáku ngedóukreskáke ngedóukreskákum ngedóukreskákam ngedóukreskakám ngedóireskáku ngedóireskákam

(II)

MASCULINE OBJECT — ITERATIVE

Past

Sing. 1 ngedúorenengáku 2 ngedúorenengáke 3n. ngedúorenengákum 3m. ngedúorenengákam 1+2 ngedúoremanengakám Dual 1 ngedóukrenengáku 2 ngedóukrenengáke 3n. ngedóukrenengákum 3m. ngedóukrenengákam 1+2 ngedóukrenengakám Plur. 1 ngedóirenengáku 3 ngedóirenengákam

ngedúorebekáku ngedúorebekáke ngedúorebekákum ngedúorebekákam ngedúoremambekakám ngedóukrebekáku ngedóukrebekáke ngedóukrebekákum ngedóukrebekákam ngedóukrebekakám ngedóirebekáku ngedóirebekákam

ngedúoreskáku ngedúoreskáke ngedúoreskákum ngedúoreskákam ngedúoremanskakám ngedóukreskáku ngedóukreskáke ngedóukreskákum ngedóukreskákam ngedóukreskakám ngedóireskáku ngedóireskákam

ngedúoreskéky ngedúoreskéki ngedúoreskékym ngedúoreskékim ngedúoremenskekim ngedóukreskéky ngedóukreskéki ngedóukreskékym ngedóukreskékim ngedóukreskekim ngedóireskéky ngedóireskékim

(III)

MASCULINE OBJECT — ITERATIVE